User:Alexlin01/NH cognates

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 * Etymologies and other connections
 * Lower level reconstructions
 * Phonology
 * Morphology
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*'ʔu.fis

 * (intransitive) to flow


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ʔu.his
 * (should probably/might actually be 'uisi)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi
 * (should probably/might actually be 'uisi)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi
 * (should probably/might actually be 'uisi)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi

*'bu.L(o/a)ŋ

 * (stative) white
 * May not be reconstructible to PNH; West Makian may be an early borrowing from PTT


 * (found in Teljeur's lists)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'bu.Loŋ
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * (or from Ternate)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bu.Lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bu.Lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bu.Lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bu.Lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bu.Lo

*'cu.p1ir

 * nail (fingernail, toenail)

☆ All Nuclear NH terms contain a prefixes of the form golo-, gulu-, gili-, or gi-. If the PNNH form of the root was something like *gol or *gul, then varying combinations of cluster simplification, epenthesis, and vowel assimilation could account for the reflexes seen. The Paḏisua term (with devoicing and final m and ʔ) is highly irregular if it belongs to this proto-form. The Ternate form with initial k- may be due to contamination with several other terms with initial kolo- (and hardly any with initial golo-).
 * (N- prefixation?)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'cu.p1ir
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *gi.'ti.p1ir
 * (H), (B)
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * (P), (T)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * - de Clercq only has golocifi (indirectly under guheba)
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * (P), (T)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * - de Clercq only has golocifi (indirectly under guheba)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * - de Clercq only has golocifi (indirectly under guheba)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * - de Clercq only has golocifi (indirectly under guheba)

*'fa.te

 * tree


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ha.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ha.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ha.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ha.te

*'fi.na(r)

 * (stative) thin


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'hi.na(r)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.na
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.na
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.na
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.na
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.na

*'fi.tom

 * kitchen


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'hi.tom
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.to
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.to
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.to

*'ga.si

 * salt
 * All of the Nuclear NH terms (excluding Tidore) could have been borrowed from Ternate.
 * From Austronesian with *N- prefixation.


 * Old West Makian:
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Sahuic:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ga.si

*gu.'bu.al

 * termite


 * Old West Makian: *gu.'bu.al → *u.'bu.al (reconstruction due to Voorhoeve, stress mine)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *gu.'bu.al
 * (improper retention of final consonant/echo vowel)
 * (irregular loss of initial gu)
 * (Kamus Tidore), (cited by Voorhoeve)
 * (Kamus Tidore), (cited by Voorhoeve)

*'i.gon

 * coconut


 * , (connections between areca nuts and coconuts appear to be well-supported areally)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.gon
 * (ikono - Tala'i)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.go
 * (ikono - Tala'i)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.go
 * (ikono - Tala'i)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.go

*'i.fok

 * excrement


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.hok
 * ? (initial k is unexpected)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ho
 * ? (initial k is unexpected)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ho
 * ? (initial k is unexpected)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ho

*'ka.fi ~ *'a.fi

 * skin


 * Old West Makian: *kafi (with ultimate stress?) (Voorhoeve)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi

*'ma.ri(ŋ)

 * stone


 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ma.riŋ
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ma.riŋ
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)

*'m(o/a).daŋ

 * mouth


 * (Baarda lists it as a taboo substitute for the usual, so it may be borrowed. I could not find a Loloda cognate)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.da (Allen 2000) ~ *'mo.da
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.da (Allen 2000) ~ *'mo.da
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.da (Allen 2000) ~ *'mo.da

*mo.'tek

 * (transitive) to follow


 * Old West Makian: *'mo.te (or from PTT)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te

*'(ŋ)o.fat

 * (stative) wide


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ŋo.hat
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.ha

*'ŋo.lot

 * sea


 * (or reborrowed from South Halmaheran)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ŋo.lot
 * (improper retention of final consonant)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ŋo.lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ŋo.lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ŋo.lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ŋo.lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ŋo.lo

*'ɲi.far

 * kenari


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ɲi.har
 * (njiara in Hueting)
 * (may actually by niara, influenced by the i and possibly by Ternate)
 * (njiara in Hueting)
 * (may actually by niara, influenced by the i and possibly by Ternate)
 * (may actually by niara, influenced by the i and possibly by Ternate)

*'o.muk

 * (stative) ripe (of fruit specifically?)


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.muk
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.mu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.mu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.mu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.mu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.mu

*'o.p1un ~ *'o.p1uŋ

 * bee, wasp


 * Old West Makian: *opin (Voorhoeve)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.p1un
 * (with irregular /h/ here, or with irregular loss in Ternate)
 * (H), (B)
 * (with metathesis from *owunu?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.fu
 * (with metathesis from *owunu?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.fu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.fu

*'o.tir

 * boat, canoe


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ti

*'o.Za

 * moon


 * Old West Makian: *'o.da
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.Za
 * (with prefix ngo-)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ŋo.ra (with N- prefixation)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra

*'p1a.it or *'p2a.it

 * (intransitive?) to dig

☆ Sahu points to p2, but the rest point to p1.
 * Old West Makian: *pait
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1a.it
 * (labialization of p1?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i
 * (labialization of p1?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i

*'p1o.la

 * house


 * Proto-Paguic: *'wo.la
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'wo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Paguic: *'wo.la
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'wo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'wo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la

*'p1o.li

 * (transitive) to buy
 * From 🇨🇬, from 🇨🇬.


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'po.li
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.li
 * (with unexpected l → d)
 * (with unexpected l → d)

*'p1o.ŋan ~ *'bo.ŋan

 * forest


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1o.ŋan
 * (Baarda's Loloda Grammar suggests wongana (but I know no Dutch). Wada lists hongana which would likely be a loan)
 * , (in Taylor)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa
 * , (in Taylor)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa

*'p2o.ŋo(n/l)

 * (stative) deaf
 * From Austronesian. Compare 🇨🇬.


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'p2o.ŋo(n/l)
 * and the name
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2o.ŋo
 * and the name
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2o.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2o.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2o.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2o.ŋo

*'p1u.tu

 * night


 * (de Clercq argues that the North Halmaherans already had a night-based system of reckoning - as opposed to a day-based one as in English)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'p1utu
 * (H)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fu.tu
 * (with prefix)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fu.tu
 * (with prefix)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fu.tu
 * (with prefix)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fu.tu
 * (with prefix)
 * (with prefix)

*'sa.fuk

 * (stative) warm


 * (with vowel lowering triggered by a?)

*'so.fat

 * palm, sole


 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'so.hat
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.hat
 * (might actually be saata or may have shortened from that)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'sa.ha
 * (might actually be saata or may have shortened from that)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'sa.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'sa.ha

*'so.fot

 * pig


 * (as sufú)
 * PNNH: *'so.hot
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'so.hot
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho

*'so.mam

 * crocodile


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ma
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ma
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ma

*'so.p1ok

 * fruit


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.p1ok
 * - but in Ellen's Woordenlijst (pg. 109), the third entry of o bole has the misspelled "ha'oo", presumably for "hao'o".
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo
 * - but in Ellen's Woordenlijst (pg. 109), the third entry of o bole has the misspelled "ha'oo", presumably for "hao'o".
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo
 * - but in Ellen's Woordenlijst (pg. 109), the third entry of o bole has the misspelled "ha'oo", presumably for "hao'o".
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo

*'ta.duk

 * and not *taḋu
 * horn (of an animal)


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ta.du

*'to.Zik

 * (transitive) to steal
 * (or through PTT)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ri

*'tu.p1am

 * sky


 * (but! Tagono village has "tipam")
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.fa

*'wa.Z(o/u)

 * (transitive) to know


 * (but also, with the same meaning)
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)
 * (but also, with the same meaning)
 * (or borrowed from Ternate)

*'ʔa.don

 * (intransitive) to arrive, reach


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.do

*'ʔa.res

 * (stative) to be white
 * Not in TT, WM, Pagu


 * (listed on page 15 in Kotynski's glottal stop paper)
 * (listed on page 15 in Kotynski's glottal stop paper)
 * (listed on page 15 in Kotynski's glottal stop paper)
 * (listed on page 15 in Kotynski's glottal stop paper)
 * (listed on page 15 in Kotynski's glottal stop paper)

*'ʔa.ri

 * (intransitive) to cry


 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri

*'ʔa.Zok

 * (transitive) to call, summon



*'ʔo.to

 * (transitive) to cut, chop

☆ These are all a little too similar

*'ʔo.Zik

 * ("transitive") to bathe



*'ʔu.dar

 * (transitive) to weed



*'ʔu.tuk

 * (transitive) to pluck, pick, harvest



*'a.kun

 * (auxiliary) to be allowed to, may; to be able to



*'a.tom

 * body louse, bedbug



*'ba.tiŋ

 * boundary, border,

☆ Both Ternate and Tidore have fati ("to block, close"), and 🇨🇬 is thought to derive from N- + fati. But, no cognates of fati are found in other languages.
 * ? (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
 * (van der Roest has "bàtėng" which may just represent "batingi")
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ti
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ti

*'ba.waŋ

 * onion

☆ From PMP or from Malay specifically (for example, Philippine reflexes strictly mean garlic). Entered Halmahera at least before PTT lost finals.
 * ? (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.wa
 * (alongside the inherited form above)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.wa
 * (alongside the inherited form above)
 * (alongside the inherited form above)
 * (alongside the inherited form above)

*'ba.Zuk

 * axe



*'be.laŋ

 * lightning

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1elaŋ?
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'be.la(be.la)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'be.la(be.la)

*'be.sak

 * rain

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1esak?

*'be.toŋ

 * word

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1etoŋ ("to say, mention").

*be.'Ze.Zoŋ

 * (transitive) to order (a good, service), to request, instruct, command



*'bi.dos



 * ? (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bi.do
 * (expected reflex is *bidoso, possibly with implosion of d)
 * (expected reflex is *bidoso)
 * (expected reflex is *bidoso, possibly with implosion of d)
 * (expected reflex is *bidoso)
 * (expected reflex is *bidoso)

*'bi.on

 * face


 * (van der Roest has "biunu")
 * (van der Roest has "biunu")
 * (van der Roest has "biunu")

*bo.'ʔo.car

 * octopus



*'bo.bor

 * nipa palm



*'bo.le

 * banana

☆ Or a widespread borrowing.
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'bo.le
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'bo.le
 * (pele in Tala'i)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'bo.le
 * (pele in Tala'i)
 * (pele in Tala'i)

*bo.'te.kon

 * arm, upper arm, forearm


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *be.'te.kon
 * (irregular loss of expected glottal stop)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bo.'te.ko
 * (irregular loss of expected glottal stop)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bo.'te.ko
 * (irregular loss of expected glottal stop)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bo.'te.ko

*'ca.hi

 * (transitive) to carry on the back


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ta.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi

*'ca.kor

 * (transitive) to hit, strike (especially of a clock?)


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ta.kor
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.ko

*'co.mar

 * neck


 * Proto-Sahuic: *co.mal
 * Proto-Sahuic: *co.mal
 * Proto-Sahuic: *co.mal
 * Proto-Sahuic: *co.mal

*'cu.mut

 * (transitive) to point at, point, indicate



*'da.hen

 * (transitive) to get, obtain


 * (van der Roest has "daieni" ("to hunt down, catch up, get"))
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he
 * (van der Roest has "daieni" ("to hunt down, catch up, get"))
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he

*'da.tom
☆ Compare with *utom
 * (transitive) to plant



*di.'ʔi.kit

 * cough

☆ Nominalization, through N-, of *tiʔikit ("to cough"). Glottal stop reconstructed only on the basis of Tabaru (see *tiʔikit).
 * (unmarked stress)
 * (not misspelled)
 * (unmarked stress)

*'di.p1aŋ ~ *'di.p1am?

 * sky



*'do.ḋa

 * inside, within (as a noun)


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'do.ḋa
 * (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'do.ḋa
 * (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'do.ḋa
 * (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)
 * (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)
 * (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)

*do.'wo.ŋi

 * and not *ḋowoŋi
 * beach, shore, coast

☆ Nominalization of *to.'wo.ŋi through N- prefixation.
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *do.'wo.ŋi

*'du.dun

 * and not *ḋuḋun
 * back (body)


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'du.dun
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'du.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'du.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'du.du
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'du.du

*'du.kon

 * volcano (and volcanic eruption? and/or lava)



*'ḋa.bos

 * (stative) swollen


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ḋo.bos
 * (Baarda lists dobo (with N- prefixed form nobo) but Wada has ḋobo and Loloda jobo)
 * (expected reflex is *doboho)
 * , (Ellen's Modole dictionary has λaboho in the Tobelo column)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.bo
 * (expected reflex is *doboho)
 * , (Ellen's Modole dictionary has λaboho in the Tobelo column)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.bo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.bo

*'ḋa.bo(t)

 * (stative) wounded

☆ Final -t is reconstructed only on the basis of *(n/ɲ)a.bo(t)
 * Old West Makian: *ḋabo
 * (Voorhoeve posits /*ḋ/ -> /_/ in all positions)

*'ḋa.gi(m)

 * (transitive) to owe

☆ Reconstructed with final m only on the basis of *'ɲa.gim ("debt").
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: 'ḋa.gi

*'ḋa.hus

 * (transitive) to smear, anoint



*'ḋa.ŋer

 * (a tree)


 * (expected reflex is *dangere)
 * (expected reflex is *dangere)

*'ḋa.sir

 * (intransitive) to swallow


 * (Ellen's Modole dictionary - under slikken)
 * (expected reflex is *dahili)
 * (expected reflex is *dahili)

*'ḋo.ku ~ 'ḋeku

 * mountain



*'ḋo.p1o(r) ~ 'ḋe.p1o(r)

 * smoke


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: 'ḋo.p1o
 * (Expected reflex is *roworo or *rowolo)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.fo ~ *'ye.fo
 * , (With  prefixing)
 * (Expected reflex is *roworo or *rowolo)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.fo ~ *'ye.fo
 * , (With  prefixing)
 * , (With  prefixing)

*'(f/h)o.rik

 * (transitive) to see


 * (If this is cognate to the rest, reconstruct *f, otherwise ??)
 * (with prefixation)
 * (with irregular prefixation; expected form is *ngodi, since this h would derive from historical *h)
 * (with irregular prefixation; expected form is *ngodi, since this h would derive from historical *h)
 * (with irregular prefixation; expected form is *ngodi, since this h would derive from historical *h)

*'ga.gu(r/k)

 * vegetable fern



*'ga.te(r)

 * liver
 * From Austronesian with *N- prefixation. Compare 🇨🇬.


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *ga.te

*gi.'ti.p1ir

 * fingernail, toenail



*go.'ce.p1at

 * raft


 * (H), (B)

*'go.ta(r)

 * tree

☆ Reconstructing final /r/ only because no other reconstructions seem to have final /l/, and Ibu neutralizes both to /l/ in final position.

*gu.'ru.min

 * shadow; reflection; life strength (in Visser & Voorhoeve: "kekuatan hidup"; in Ellen's Pagu dictionary: "zielestof")


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *gu.'ru.mi

*'gu.tiŋ

 * scissors

☆ We presume this form, but all NH terms seem borrowed from Ternate (except possibly Tidore and Galela)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'gu.ti
 * (or possibly inherited)
 * (or possibly inherited)

*'ha.p1or




*'i.ŋir

 * tooth


 * Proto-Sahuic: *'i.ŋid
 * (Paḏisua) (Tala'i)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ŋi
 * → ?Old West Makian: *ingi → *ngi → wi (pure speculation)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'i.ŋid
 * (Paḏisua) (Tala'i)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ŋi
 * → ?Old West Makian: *ingi → *ngi → wi (pure speculation)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ŋi
 * → ?Old West Makian: *ingi → *ngi → wi (pure speculation)
 * → ?Old West Makian: *ingi → *ngi → wi (pure speculation)

*'ja.Luk

 * sagwire (Dutch: sagoweer, saguweer), aren palm sap


 * (Tala'i - irregular loss of final syllable)
 * (Tala'i - irregular loss of final syllable)
 * (Tala'i - irregular loss of final syllable)
 * (Tala'i - irregular loss of final syllable)
 * (Tala'i - irregular loss of final syllable)

*'ka.biŋ

 * goat


 * (or borrowed (or reinforced by) from Ternate)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ka.bi

*'ka.wiŋ

 * (Nuclear NH)
 * (transitive) to marry, wed

☆ From Classical Malay (Late Old Malay?) kawin
 * (H)
 * (H) (presumably from an older form that preserved the w)
 * (H)
 * (H) (presumably from an older form that preserved the w)
 * (H) (presumably from an older form that preserved the w)

*ke.'le.lo ~ *ge.'le.lo

 * (transitive) to see

☆ The intial voiced terms may just be N- prefixation

*ko.'la.no ~ *'ko.la.n(a)

 * (Nuclear NH)
 * kolano

☆ Possibly from Old/Middle Javanese kalana (c.f. 🇨🇬, from older form kelana), meaning "a fierce character, originally a prince from overseas" and "a wandering adventurer of noble birth from abroad". The initial stress reconstruction may have been borrowed with the final vowel, which would then have been re-interpreted as an echo vowel.
 * (or from Ternate)
 * (or from Ternate)
 * (H) and (B) (initial stress)
 * (initial stress)
 * (initial stress?)
 * (initial stress)

*'ko.Zo

 * (transitive) to fetch (of people), to invite



*'ku.sor



 * ? (expected form is *kuhoro)
 * ? (expected form is *kuhoro)
 * ? (expected form is *kuhoro)
 * ? (expected form is *kuhoro)

*'ku.sum

 * Imperata cylindrica



*'la.ḋem

 * (intransitive) to lick


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'la.ḋem
 * tongue, (intransitive) to lick
 * (Baarda has ḋ, Wada mistakenly(?) writes d)
 * (Baarda's grammar has ladjémé, whereas Wada has lajema)
 * (unknown dialect)
 * (with unexpected loss of *ḋ)
 * Ternate-Tidore: *'ya.le (presuming metathesis in this branch)
 * Ternate-Tidore: *'ya.le (presuming metathesis in this branch)

*'la.kem

 * meat


 * Proto-Sahuic: *'la.ʔem
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'la.ʔem
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'la.ʔem
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'la.ʔem

*'Lu.suŋ

 * mortar, rice pounder

☆ From 🇨🇬.
 * ? (Certainly from Austronesian; may or may not reflect this proto-form)
 * (in Ellen)
 * (in Ellen)
 * (in Ellen)
 * (in Ellen)

*'ma.ḋek

 * (stative) to be ashamed


 * Galela: made (written as such by Baarda, but it must be a typo for maḋe)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ḋe
 * (may be underlyingly maye)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ḋe
 * (may be underlyingly maye)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ḋe
 * (may be underlyingly maye)
 * (may be underlyingly maye)

*'ma.ke

 * (transitive) to find, meet



*'ma.nok

 * flying fox (paniki), bat, fruitbat


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.no
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.no
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.no
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.no
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.no

*'ma.ŋon

 * (stative) sharp


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ŋo

*mo.'la.yu(n)?

 * Malay (ethnicity)

☆ If we suppose that Tobelo and Pagu lost a final /n/, then we can reconstruct this proto-form. Otherwise, a late-stage borrowing that spread?
 * (in Hueting and Ellen)
 * (in Hueting and Ellen)

*mo.'le.(o/u)n

 * Megapodius freycinet


 * (a borrowing?)
 * (a borrowing?)

*'mo.kur

 * pinang, sirih; (intransitive) to chew sirih

☆ Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) lists Sahu-Waioli moudu (pg. 324), which mostly likely represents mo'uḏu or something similar. Visser and Voorhoeve don't list this.

*mo.'na.ram

 * work (noun)


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *ma.'na.ram
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *mo.'na.ra
 * , (found in de Clercq)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *mo.'na.ra
 * , (found in de Clercq)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *mo.'na.ra
 * , (found in de Clercq)

*'mu.ruŋ ~ *'mu.rum

 * star



*'na.ko

 * (transitive) to know



*'na.mo(r)

 * bird, chicken

☆ Sahuic forms without a third consonant may be loans from Ternate
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'na.mo(r)
 * Proto-Sahu: *na.mo
 * (Paḏisua and Tala'i)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'na.mo(r)
 * Proto-Sahu: *na.mo
 * (Paḏisua and Tala'i)
 * (Paḏisua and Tala'i)

*'na.rot

 * (transitive) to pull


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'na.ro
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'na.ro

*'ŋa.ir

 * river



*'ɲa.bo(t)

 * wound
 * Nominalization, through N-, of *ḋabo(t).


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ɲa.bo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ɲa.bo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ɲa.bo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ɲa.bo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ɲa.bo

*'ɲa.gim

 * debt


 * (van der Roest spelling is nagěmi)
 * (van der Roest spelling is nagěmi)
 * (van der Roest spelling is nagěmi)

*'ɲi.hik

 * (transitive) to follow, chase, hunt


 * (long vowel)
 * (long vowel)
 * (long vowel)

*'o.ker

 * (transitive) to drink


 * Proto-Sahuic: *'o.ʔe (with irregular loss of final /r/)
 * (Tala'i dialect)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
 * (Tala'i dialect)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
 * (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)

*'p1a.Lus

 * (intransitive) to answer, respond


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:

*'p2a.Lus

 * (intransitive) to answer, respond



*'p2a.sa(r/l)

 * (stative) to be past (gone past, walked past, etc.)

☆ Reminiscent of 🇨🇬
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)
 * ? (Kamus Bahasa Tidore)

*'p1e.kat

 * wife



*'p1e.laŋ

 * (transitive, intransitive) to open


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fe.la
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fe.la

*'p1e.sak

 * (stative) wet


 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)
 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)
 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)
 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)
 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)
 * (irregular change of *p1 to f)

*'p2i.lok

 * (stative) blind


 * (a loan?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2i.lo
 * (a loan?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2i.lo
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'p2i.lo

*p1o.'ḋe.ka

 * wife


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *p1e.'ḋe.ka
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *fo.'ye.ka
 * (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *fo.'ye.ka
 * (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *fo.'ye.ka
 * (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)
 * (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)

*'p1o.ki

 * eggplant


 * (may be dialectal or borrowed; expected reflex is *hokihoki)

*'p1o.kor

 * (stative) pregnant



*'p2o.kor

 * belly


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p2o.kor
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'po.ʔol
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'po.ʔol
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'po.ʔol

*p2o.'li.kur

 * (transitive) to bind (mengikat)


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *p2i.'li.kur

*p2o.'lo.tek

 * (intransitive) to burst



*'p1o.nat

 * ridge (of a roof, house)


 * (irregular, expected is *honata)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.na
 * (irregular, expected is *honata)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.na
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.na

*p2o.'ro.tok

 * (transitive) to chew



*'p1o.son

 * (stative) forbidden


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore:

*p2o.'tu.ruŋ

 * (stative) strong


 * (with irregular /*p2/ -> /f/)
 * (with irregular /*p2/ -> /f/)
 * (with irregular /*p2/ -> /f/)
 * (with irregular /*p2/ -> /f/)

*'p1u.ku(r)

 * knee


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bu.ku.'bu.ku
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bu.ku.'bu.ku
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bu.ku.'bu.ku
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bu.ku.'bu.ku
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *bu.ku.'bu.ku

*'ra.cim

 * poison


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.ci
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.ci

*'ro.hes

 * body, flesh


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ro.hes ("body")
 * (may be rohee), (in Hueting)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'lo.hes ("body")
 * (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'lo.hes ("body")
 * (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")
 * (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")
 * (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")

*'ro.kat

 * husband


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.ka
 * (likely a long vowel)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.ka
 * (likely a long vowel)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.ka
 * (likely a long vowel)
 * (likely a long vowel)

*'sa.man

 * proa outrigger



*'sa.p1in

 * (stative) hungry



*'sa.yak

 * flower



*se.'le.wo?

 * stone



*'si.det

 * sail, (intransitive) to sail



*'si.Lo

 * resin, torch


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'si.lo

*ti.'ʔi.kit

 * (intransitive) to cough


 * (not misspelled)

*'to.boŋ

 * (intransitive) to swim



*'to.ḋom

 * (stative) sharp, pointed; (transitive) to sharpen


 * (with irregular echo vowel)
 * (with irregular echo vowel)
 * (with irregular echo vowel)
 * (with irregular echo vowel)

*to.'ma.kon

 * axe


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ta.'ma.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ta.'ma.ko
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ta.'ma.ko

*'to.nok

 * (transitive) to submerge, soak, dunk, dip


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.no
 * (expected reflex is "tono'o")
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.no
 * (expected reflex is "tono'o")
 * (expected reflex is "tono'o")

*'to.p2ok

 * (transitive) to pierce, stab


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'to.p2ok
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.p2o
 * (with irregular final vowel)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.p2o
 * (with irregular final vowel)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.p2o
 * (with irregular final vowel)
 * (with irregular final vowel)
 * (with irregular final vowel)

*to.'wo.ŋi

 * (intransitive) to walk along the water's edge (beach, shore, river, etc.)
 * ("weg langs het strand gaan")
 * ("weg langs het strand gaan")
 * ("weg langs het strand gaan")

*'tu.mun

 * (intransitive) to dive

*'tu.tuk

 * (transitive) to pound, mash
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.tu

*'u.bor

 * female (red) Eclectus roratus



*'u.tuk

 * root (of a plant)


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'u.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'u.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'u.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'u.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'u.tu

*'wa.ŋe(r)

 * sun, day



*'wa.to(n/l)

 * (stative) naked



*'wo.mas

 * breath, (intransitive) to breathe



*'wo.ŋem

 * (protective?) spirit



*'wo.sam

 * (transitive) to enter


 * ?, (possibly from Ternate)

*'wo.tom

 * (transitive) to bury

☆ Compare with *'da.tom
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.to
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.to

*'wo.t(u/i)t

 * navel, umbilical cord


 * ?, (possibly related?)
 * (from PSahuic *wutut?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.tu
 * (from PSahuic *wutut?)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.tu

*'mo.i

 * (Nuclear NH only; WM has minyé)



*diŋ

 * two

☆ Listing this as *diŋ and not *di for a few reasons:
 * 1) the West Makian form
 * 2) works well with the reconstruction for 7
 * 3) Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) connects this with the word for "day after/before tomorrow" which can be reconstructed as PNNH *(mo)'diriŋ (PNH form still uncertain)
 * and also edé
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'di.di (reduplication with unexplained loss of final ŋ)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'di.di

*si.'no.to

 * (Nuclear NH - partial)


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *si.'no.to
 * (H)
 * (H)
 * (H)

*'ʔa.ŋe(r)

 * three


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ʔa.ŋe(r)
 * , but also
 * (H),
 * , but also
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ŋe
 * (P), (T)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ŋe
 * , but also
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ŋe
 * (P), (T)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ŋe
 * , but also
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ŋe
 * , but also
 * , but also

*fat

 * four


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *hat
 * (H)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *(h)at
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * (H)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *(h)at
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Sahuic: *(h)at
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ha

*'to.fa(r)

 * five


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *to.ha
 * and
 * and
 * (H) and
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'to.a(r)
 * and also (prefixed with the human classifier)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ha
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'to.a(r)
 * and also (prefixed with the human classifier)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ha
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.ha

*Zam or *ram

 * six

☆ not enough data to determine the initial consonant
 * Proto-Sahuic: *ram
 * (but other forms show ranga)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ra
 * (but other forms show ranga)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ra
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *ra

*bu.'ta.ŋa

 * (Nuclear NH - partial)
 * six


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *bu.'ta.ŋa
 * (H)
 * (H)
 * (H)

*tof.'diŋ

 * seven

☆ Possible etymology: 🇰🇲 → *ˌto.fa.'diŋ → *ˌtof.'diŋ (vowel elision) ☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtop.'diŋ (fortition) → *ˌtep.'diŋ (vowel assimilation) → *ˌte.pe.'diŋ (re-epenthesis) ☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda/Modole/Sahuic: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'diŋ(i) (re-epenthesis) ☆☆ Pre-Tabaru/Pagu: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔiŋ(i) (re-epenthesis and spontaneous lengthening?) ☆☆ Pre-Ternate-Tidore: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ (fricative to nasal) → *ˌtom.'di (loss of final consonant) → *ˌto.mo.'di (re-epenthesis) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔi (lengthening of final stressed vowel to fit syllable pattern; c.f. kurusii, etc.) ☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language supports */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *tu.mu.'di.ŋi
 * (H)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *tu.mu.'diŋ
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * (H)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *tu.mu.'diŋ
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Sahuic: *tu.mu.'diŋ
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *to.mo.'di.ʔi

*tof.'ʔa.ŋe(r)

 * eight

☆ Possible etymology: 🇰🇲 → *ˌto.fa.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) (vowel elision) ☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtof.'ka.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌtok.'pa.ŋe (fortition and methathesis) → *ˌtok.'ba.ŋe (spontaneous voicing?) ☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtop.'ʔa.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌto.pa.'ʔa.ŋe (re-epenthesis) ☆☆ Pre-Tobelo/Modole/Pagu/Tabaru: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌto.'fa.ŋe(r) (glottal stop elision / cluster simplification) → *ˌto.'ha.ŋe(r) (passing from NH to Nuclear NH) ☆☆ Pre-Sahuic: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋer → *ˌto.'ʔa.ŋer (cluster simplification) ☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language could support */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.
 * , (Sabale)
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *tu.pa.'ʔa.ŋe
 * (H)
 * ; (listed by Hayami-Allen pg. 32 without source)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *to.'ʔa.ŋer
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * ; (listed by Hayami-Allen pg. 32 without source)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *to.'ʔa.ŋer
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *tof.'ka.ŋe

*'si.wo(r)

 * nine


 * (vowel assimilation?)
 * Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'si.wo(r)
 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'si.wo
 * (H)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'si.wor
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'si.wor
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Sahuic: *'si.wor
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)

*mo.gi.'o.wok

 * (Nuclear NH - partial)
 * ten


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *mo.gi.'o.wok

*mo.na.'ha.lok

 * (Nuclear NH - partial)
 * twenty


 * Proto-Galela-Loloda: *mo.na.'ha.lok
 * (H)
 * (H)
 * (H)

*'ra.tus

 * hundred


 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.tu
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ra.tu

*'ca.lan?

 * thousand

☆ Extremely odd that all terms have initial c. Maybe(???) influence from Ternate?
 * (found in "calannye", where "nye" may be from "minye" ("one"))
 * ( found in Holton)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.la
 * (expected reflex is calana)
 * Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.la
 * (expected reflex is calana)
 * (expected reflex is calana)
 * (expected reflex is calana)

West Makian

 * In some cases, West Makian has final /i/ where the reconstruction has final consonant.
 * 1) *samam ->
 * 2) *ḋabos ->
 * In some cases, the last vowel of the West Makian reflex is /i/ in place of reconstructed /*u/. Note also 🇨🇬, which may at least be related to the source of tadik.
 * 1) *opu(n/ŋ) ->
 * 2) *taduk ->
 * Compare also 🇨🇬, cognate to 🇨🇬.
 * However, *safuk ->
 * However, *safuk ->


 * Many of these terms suggest Old West Makian had ultimate (instead of penultimate) stress
 * My original hypothesis (now untenable) was that WM terms without final consonant were all loans from PTT. However, 🇨🇬 is extremely unlikely to be a loan from PTT *sofo. Some such terms may ultimately be from PTT, but this shows that WM did lose final consonants independently too (just as Galela and PTT).

Lexical

 * 1) Compare NH *'p1oko(r/l) ("pregnant") and *'p2okor ("belly").
 * 2) PNH *dipaŋ/dipam and PNH *tupam may be doublets, and are often considered together.
 * 3) PNH *(n/ɲ)agim may be an N- prefixed form of some PNH term reflected in 🇨🇬. Galela, Loloda, and Sahu all show hagi as well, but these appear to be Ternate loans.
 * 4) PNH *s(o/a)mam ("crocodile") and *saman ("outrigger") are considered the same by Hueting, who states that *s(o/a)mam is a taboo substitution for the original term.

Potential Reconstructions?

 * *k(o/u).l(o/u).'ci.pik ("finger/toenail") - 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬 ~
 * *'po.ret ("back (of body)") - 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬
 * 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬?, 🇨🇬, all meaning "to feel, feel around for, palpate"
 * *Z
 * 1) 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, and 🇨🇬 (and 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬), all meaning "oil".
 * 2) 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, all meaning "to creep, crawl"
 * 3) 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, all meaning "to forget"

Tree
Putatively:
 * Old West Makian (isolated reconstructions provided by Voorhoeve)
 * West Makian
 * various dialects by village
 * Nuclear NH:
 * Galela-Loloda:
 * Galela
 * Loloda
 * Tobelo
 * Heleworuru dialect (Tobelo district - "genuine" or unmarked variety)
 * Boeng dialect (Kao district)
 * Dodinga dialect
 * Modole
 * Paguic:
 * Pagu
 * Kao
 * Tabaru
 * Nyeku dialect
 * Adu dialect
 * Sahuic:
 * Sahu
 * Paḏisua dialect
 * Tala'i dialect
 * Waioli
 * Gamkonora
 * Ibu
 * Ternate-Tidore:
 * Ternate
 * Tidore

Possible groupings

 * Galela-Loloda and Tobelo may form a higher-order grouping. Traditional histories link the ethnic groups, and linguistically there is some shared lexicon not found in other branches (see *sinoto ("two") above, which even Pagu, Modole, and Tabaru don't share). A morphological analysis would be better to justify this.
 * Some "Northern" family grouping comprising of some or all of: Galela-Loloda, Tobelo, Tabaru, Pagu-Kao, Modole; note *butanga ("six"), *mogiowok ("ten"), and *monahalok ("twenty").