User:Burgundaz/Germanic mythology

Intro
This page is merely for matching linguistics with mythology, especially Germanic mythology, as it is known only from one branch, which shows much reduction from what cultural and archaeological evidence suggests must have existed earlier. This author finds that linguistic reconstructions in other sources are severely wanting in terms of rigorous reconstruction from an Indo-European and especially Germanic standing. Also, this author would like to leave behind whatever more information can be achieved or gleaned from the work at hand.

Extremely speculative entries and information will be so marked, but the information will have to be based on correct formal linguistic and comparative evidence that must be possible and relevant.

Affixes
*-nijaz
 * Given here as *-nijaz, except where explicitly given evidence otherwise. The alternative forms are: *-anjaz; as well as with possible ablaut evidence: *-injaz and *-unjaz.

*-unjō, originally *-unī
 * A feminine suffix, especially denoting "mistress". Abstracted from words like PIE *pótnih₂, "mistress (of the household)", *h₃rḗǵnih₂, "queen, female ruler", which take the forms *pot-n̥-yeh₂- and **h₃rḗǵ-n̥-yeh₂- in the oblique. Germanic regularized the oblique stem, *-un- throughout, just as Celtic and (probably) Italic did, as seen in Celtic *rīganī and Latin rēgīna (although *rēgina is expected).

Beings
*Albīz

*Ansiwiz

*Ansunjōz

*Dīsīz
 * Mechanically requires pre-Germanic *dʰéy(H)-S- or *dʰíH-S-. The *-S- can be part of the root or result of dental assimilation, *-D-D-.
 * A root *dʰeyH-, "to see, envisage", is attested in eastern IE languages. An original meaning of "seers", or "knowers", is semantically fitting with regards to the long-attested belief in Germanic language history that females have the power of foresight. Thus, the preform must have been *dʰíH-t-tis or *dʰíH-sis. The latter could be explained as an s-aorist (rare but attested in Germanic) or a desiderative/future formation, "who will know". If originally derived from an aorist however, the West-Germanic *idīsiz could be related, bearing the otherwise unattested (in Germantic) "augment" or another particle.
 * If originally Celtic, as pre-Celtic *dʰeh₁s- would give Celtic *dīs- > Germanic *dīs-, then the original meaning would have been "the sacred" or "the divine". While formally perfect and with Indo-European parallels in Greek and Latin, the idea of borrowing a specific term relating to almost exclusively feminine deities is perplexing.

*Dwergōz

*Etunōz/*Jetunōz(?), Jǫtnar, Ēotenas
 * Presumably goes back to heteroclitic *h₁ed-wr̥/*h₁ed-un-, cf. Ancient Greek εἶδαρ. Rather than assuming a meaning of "eaters", the meaning was originally probably "bits..." (of the primordial being?; of the world?). Formally this fits best and has some semantic ground to stand on, but not a lot.
 * Alternatively, the word is suspiciously close to Sanskrit Yáti, the name of a mythical race associated with the creation of the world. Formally however, the words are incompatible, earlier *yet-i-, against *ed-(u)n-. However with a few assumptions, the two might still be reconciled, supposing that Old English Ēotenas, "giant, monster", could actually be a term loaned from Old Norse Jǫt(u)nar, likely because it only appears in Beowulf, an epic set in Scandinavia, and probably originating there. The irregular -t- would then have to be explained, possibly as further evidence in Germanic of PIE *-th₂- yielding Germanic *-t-, cf. Germanic *flataz < *ploth₂os.
 * Another alternative, probably the most semantically appealing, is connection with the Celtic word for "birthpangs", *edū, shifted to the nasal stems from earlier pre-Celtic *h₁ed-un-, in which case we could reconstruct earlier *h₁éd-wōl, oblique *h₁d-uné-, a formation somehow related to or derived from *h₁ód-wl̥, oblique *h₁d-uné-, attested in Ancient Greek odýnē, "pain". The name would then be a reference to their role as the first beings to be "born" in the world.

*Nurnīz, Nornir
 * Together with Latin nūntius, can be derived from a heteroclitic neuter noun *nówH-r̥/*néwH-ōr (or *nów(H)-wr̥), oblique *nuH-n̥té- (or *nuH-wént-), meaning "message" or "news", from PIE *newH-, "to call (to); to make known". Latin continues the strong root with the weak stem, while Germanic continues the weak root with the strong stem, which must have eventually become an n-stem **nūrṓ > *nurṓ, oblique *nūr-né- > *nur-né-, with pretonic shortening of the expected long vowel, unless the laryngeal had already been deleted in the earlier consonant cluster -nVR(H)R(C)- which also seems possible.
 * The -nt- as found in the Latin stem would be parallel to formations like Ancient Greek húdōr, oblique hudát-; and is also in parallel to the suffix -mentum, which could conceivably be back-formed from the original oblique and plural, -menta, of the otherwise regularized -men stems.
 * At whatever point Germanic derived an associative or agentive noun "those who call (to)", "the messengers/relaters (of information)", or even conceivably "those who make known".
 * If the i-stem, *Nurnīz, pl. *Nurnīz, were not original but instead secondary, the original form could also conceivably have been an ō-stem *Nurnō/*Nurnōz, based off the plural of the neuter n-stem, or an n-stem itself *Nur(n)ǭ, *Nur(n)ōniz, with *Nur(n)(ōn)iz being the basis of a back-formation. If the i-stem were secondary, it would be due to association with related terms like *Dīsīz, or due to influence from the declensions of the group's three most notable members: *Wurdiz, *Werþandī and *Skuldiz.

*Walakuzjōniz

*Walwōniz, Vǫlva

*Wanīz, sg. *Waniz, Vanir
 * Could mean either "the accustomed" or perhaps "the loving ones", from earlier *Hwonh₁-, "to desire, love"; this would be in reference to their general role in fertility, wealth and good-being.
 * Could also mean "the defeated/beaten", from earlier *gʷʰon-, and related to Germanic *banô, "bane, death"; this would be in reference to their role as being beaten and subservient to the *Ansiwiz, literally "the lords/masters".

Concepts
epithets
 * Norse gods, and possibly the gods of Proto-Germanic proper, were better known by their epithets: *Þunraz, "thundering"; *Frawjaz, "lord"; *Balþaz, "bold"; *Frijjō, "beloved"; *Frawjǭ, "lady". Their real names probably being reserved for sacred rites, it might have been considered blasphemous to refer to them so commonly by their actual names.
 * Among the exceptions are *Tīwaz and *Wōdanaz.
 * As Proto-Germanic normally postposes titles, this was very likely extended to epithets and nicknames. Thus, as Proto-Germanic also normally places adjective or appositive before the noun, this allowed epithets to be interpreted later on as proper names; ie. *Ingwaz frawjaz > *ingwaz Frawjaz > *Frawjaz
 * Due to Old Norse being almost the entire source for Germanic mythology, and being attested so late, this process was near complete, obscuring the earlier names of almost all deities. As an example, compare the goddess *Austrǭ, attested in Old English and Continental West Germanic languages, one of the few deities attested in these languages at all, she must have been of some importance; however, she is completely absent from Old Norse, which is attested many centuries later than the first attestations of West Germanic languages. She is probably one and the same goddess known to Old Norse as Freya however, who coincidentally also happens to be quite an important deity.

name blending

syncretism

As is very common in mythology and lore, gods and heroes gain or lose popularity or become strongly associated with another such figure; in the former case, one figure's attributes or roles are transferred to another, more popular figure; in the latter case, the association might be so strong that it leads to a very common practice in mythologies, in which gods or hereoes become more or less the same being, known by more than one name but referring to just one figure. During times of upheaval, as certainly when Germanic expansion into Celtic lands began, and later with the Great Migrations, it is extremely likely that as populations split and merged, deities and hereoes from one tradition were merged with those of another.

Old Norse mythology, our best and mostly only source of information on Germanic mythology, was written down roughly 1500-1800 years after Proto-Germanic originated, and roughly 1300-600 years after the vast upheavals in the Germanic world began and ended. They were then the keepers of a much changed situation that must have occurred; the syncretism that most assuredly took place is very evident in the stories and writings, with Gods having multiple names and roles, even contradicting roles and stories in many cases.

It is therefore a creative choice on this page to pursue the challenge of dissecting names, roles and stories, finding some sort of rhyme or reason to their origin or existence, and piece them together as best or possibly as can be done, while also using linguistic, historical and mythological evidence from the cultures related to and surrounding the early Germanic-speaking world.

Feminine
*Austrǭ - OE Ēastre > Easter, OHG Ōst(a)ra
 * From PIE *h₂éws-reh₂, an r-stem derivation of *h₂ews-, "dawn".
 * A goddess with many extra-Germanic cognates, and although not much is written about her, within Germanic we can be certain she was very likely representative of "Spring", a very common and logical procession of semantics, considering her name literally means "light of Dawn".

*Burgundī
 * Although attested nowhere, can be posited to have existed based on the seemingly rather extensive similarities between Celtic and Germanic mythology and story elements, thereby a Germanic *Burgundī would be cognate with Celtic *Brigantī, as well as the Sanskrit epithet bṛhát/bṛhatī́. The Germanic form is present in the ethnonym *Burgundijaniz, Latin Burgundiones. For a more speculative connection, consider
 * If truly cognate with the

*Frawjǭ, Freya
 * Originally an epithet, "lady ...". It is very likely that in older Germanic religious belief Freyr and Freya were not twins, but as "Lord and Lady" a couple of some importance. The "twins" motif was transferred from the divine horse twins,

*Frijjō, Frigg
 * From pre-Germanic *priH-yó-. Directly cognate with Sanskrit priyá, "beloved, dear", as evidenced by Holtzmann's Law -jj-. Originally an epithet, "beloved...". It is very likely she represents an amalgam a different goddesses to whom the epithet could be applied.
 * Speculatively, in her place as mother of *Þunraz, she could be associated with the goddess Jǫrð, in which case her name would have originally been *Erþō frijjō, "beloved Earth".
 * Her association with foresight and wisdom allows one to connect her with Celtic Brigid or *Brigantī, a goddess the Romans associated with Minerva, a goddess of "wisdom" and "strategic warfare"; for the latter, compare the goddess's role in the founding myth of the Langobards.

*Fullǭ, Fulla/Volla
 * Rather looks like an epithet, "... the full (one)".

*Gabjunō or *Gabjōnō, Gefjon/Gefjun
 * Derived from pre-Germanic *gʰHbʰ-, "to take, hold", probably then to "be wealthy"; see Old Norse -gǫfugr, "wealthy in/possessing ...", Gothic gabei, gab(e)igs. Probably etymologically related to Lithuanian Gabija, although their roles don't quite line up. Further, while the verb itself does not seem to be attested in Germanic, it would be directly cognate to Celtic *gabyeti, "to take, hold", whereby we can infer a Germanic form *gab(j)aną (class 6). Thus, Gefjon/Gefjun would reflect earlier *gʰHbʰ-y-eh₂-neh₂-, a derivative of the verb with a femininizing or "ruler" suffix *-ōnō or *-unō.
 * Probably originally a "maiden" goddess, somewhat akin to Roman Diana or Greek Artemis. Her association with ploughing and land however, also indicates her being a goddess of "harvest" or "the bounty of the land". In such a case, one might be able to link her to the epithet *... fullǭ ("the full" or "the bountiful"), as the figure Fulla' is also described as a virgin, similar to Gefjon/Gefjun''.

*Gardī/*Garidī/*Gariþī - ON Gerðr
 * Explainable from at least three roots, the first being most likely, from the root *ǵʰer-, "to desire", as Freyr desires her above all else, even refusing to eat, sleep or drink. This would reflect an o-grade *ǵʰor-, and might incidentally find a near perfect match in Ancient Greek zero-grade *kʰáris, oblique *kʰárit-, "grace, beauty" literally "what is desired"; the plural *Kʰárites, "Graces" also serves as a collective name for a group of goddesses. If so, she could be reconnected with the epithet *... hulþǭ, if indeed originally hers: therefore *Gar(i)dī hulþǭ, "gracious Desire"/"the gracious desired" or "the favorable/faithful Grace". If the latter meaning is correct, "faithful" would be in reference to her loyalty to her father whom she refused to leave, which then shifted to Freyr her husband after marriage.
 * Second, and less likely, from a root that could be reconstructed with Balto-Slavic help as *ǵʰer(H)- (as per Derksen 2008, 2015, albeit with caution), "to see; to shine, radiate", semantically motivated by being seen and immediately captivating Freyr. Also, the very numerous references to her being "bright" and "shining". With this notion, perhaps we could reconnect her with the lost epithet *... berhtǭ, "the bright", therefore *Gar(i)dī berhtǭ, "the bright Radiating (one)"?
 * Third and maybe least likely, *gerd-, < *gʰerdʰ-, "to enclose", through an o-grade *gardaz or *gardiz, "enclosing; enclosure", perhaps due to her role as shut away from the world, although this is semantically uncompelling. Possibly maybe instead "she of the household"?

*Hlōdunjō, Hlóðyn, *Hludana
 * In view of the variant attested outside Old Norse, this rather looks like a secondary formation to an earlier epithet *Hlōdanō, "laden ... " (Earth?). Due to the specific ending *-unjō that is used, it is attractive to assume it was an epithet specific to the name *Fergunjō, therefore *Fergunjō hlōdanō > *Fergunjō hlōdunjō. This would then be another case of name and epithet blending stems.

*Hulþō/*Hulþǭ, Hulda/Holda/Holla/Holle
 * An epithet meaning "(the) gracious/favorable" or more literally "well-inclined".

*Idunþī or '*Idun(n Early Irish ethaim, "to go"), Greek -itaō > itētéon, and Latin itāre; but nonetheless leaves it's mark in Old Norse ida < *idǭ, "eddy, whirlpool" (< "(continously) going"), and especially in the adverbs/adjectives iðu(g/r)-liga/-ligr, "continuous, frequent", which, like ON málugr, "speaking", (derived from *mála < *maþlōną, "to speak") looks like an innovative secondary verbal adjective formation to weak class 2 verbs. For comparison, in OE and ON weak class 2 verbs productively and regularly derive verbal nouns ending in *-ungō, which led to weak class 1 verbs being logically derived in *-ingō, especially in OE.
 * This would then make the goddess directly cognate to Latin Iuventus/Iuventas, "goddess of youth and regeneration", and comparable also to Ancient Greek Hḗbē, "goddess of youth, prime of life".
 * This would then make the goddess directly cognate to Latin Iuventus/Iuventas, "goddess of youth and regeneration", and comparable also to Ancient Greek Hḗbē, "goddess of youth, prime of life".

*Lubainiz or *Lubanō, Lofn

*Medunō

*Nahtō, Nótt
 * Personified "Night".

*Nanþǭ, Nanna
 * Possibly originally an epithet, "the daring one". If so it would seem she was brought about to serve as the logical counterpart to *Balþaz, "the bold...".

*Nerunō, Njǫrun

*N(i/ī)hwalinjō, Nehalennia
 * Formally looks like the Germanic adjective *nihwalaz or *nīhwalaz, "low; deep" with the individualizing *-injō suffix. Note in both cases the -e-'s are reduced, either due to a-umlaut or by Celticization. This interpretation of the name, "the low one" or "deep one", would be semantically compatible with her appearances and association with ships, and therefore the sea.

*Sefunō/*Sebunō, Sjǫfn
 * A goddess of "love", probably also of "marriage". Rather straightforwardly, it would seem to be derived from *sep-, "to care for, honor", therefore, "the caring, devoted one".
 * On the other hand, one could assume a relation with *sibjō, "relation", but we might assume a form like *Sibjunō would yield *Sifn or *Syfn instead.

*Sibjō, Sif
 * Literally "relation", or perhaps "related one".

'*Sīgunjō, Sigyn
 * From pre-Germanic *seikʷ-n̥-ih₂, related to Celtic *Sēkʷan-(ī?), "the river Seine".

*Skadô, ON Skaði
 * The name could mean "scathe, damage", but due to the figure's strong association with "winter", it would be best to assume a relation to *skaduz, "shadow", although indirectly.
 * *skaduz itself looks to be an agentive tu-stem from the root in question, *skh̥₃-tús, meaning "dark (one/thing)", probably originally very specifically in reference to a person's shadow.
 * In Ancient Greek we find skótos, "darkness, dark", and in Proto-Celtic *skātom, "shadow", from *skh̥́₃-tos and *skeh₃-tom, respectively. Both point to independent substantivizations of an original to-stem *skh̥₃-tós, "dark": Ancient Greek with contrastive stress derivation, *skh̥₃-tós > *skh̥́₃-tos, and Celtic with secondary full-grade, *skh̥₃-tós > *skeh₃-tom, along with a shift to a neuter noun (which is common in Germanic as well, *bʰh₁-tós > **bʰh̥́₁-tom, "bath"), probably with accompanying stress shift but the Celtic material doesn't allow us to tell for certain. Therefore we can assume that PIE possessed a to-stem adjective, "dark", with strong associations to "shade" or "shadows", therefore "shaded, shady". Ancient Greek skotía (< *skh₃-t-íh₂), "darkness", especially of "shadows", is also very likely a direct derivation from the same adjective, and probably a direct cognate with Germanic *Skadį̄, < **skh₃-t-íh₂(n), albeit with secondary transfer to the masculine n-stem declension because īn-stems are not usually found in names of individuals.
 * Further, this figure's association with winter, and the unsuccessful attempt at splitting time between her home and her new husband's home, rather points to a vague connection with the Greek pair Demeter and Persephone, whose parting for half the year brings winter.
 * Another clue to the original connection with Demeter could also be found in the name of her husband *Nerþuz, whose name was given for a goddess representing "Mother Earth" in Tacitus. Tacitus also states that there was an island in the ocean sacred to "Nerthus", where there was to be found a sacred lake relating to rituals and sacrifice. Since an original "Demeter" figure rather heavily implies a "Persephone", one could speculate that another goddess, one who also happens to be particularly associated with an island in the ocean, could be assumed in the figure *Gabjōnō/*Gabjunō, associated with the island of Zealand (also with plowing, an activity relating to the productive non-winter seasons). Further, there does seem to be found on the island of Zealand a "sacred" lake Tissø, where there has been found to be evidence of worship and sacrifice for perhaps thousands of years.

*Snutrǭ, ON Snotra
 * An epithet meaning "clever". Due to the meaning, it very likely is an epithet of a goddess known for wisdom

*Sunjō, Syn

*Tamfanō, Tamfana
 * Sometimes considered a Germanic continuation of PIE *déms-potnih₂, "mistress of the house", cf. Greek déspoina, like pótnia itself, a frequent epithet of goddesses. This would require a preform *dómpotneh₂ > *Tamfadnō; would Latin speakers have heard this latter form merely as Tamfanō?
 * Alternatively, we could read it as *Þamfanō, from the root *temp-, "to stretch". A Germanic derivative of the same root, *þambō, "guts, womb; bowstring", could perhaps allow an interpretation of a goddess related to "archery".

Masculine
*Audunaz, ON Auðun
 * An epithet for "Odin". Probably derived from the lost verb *audaną, "to grant, bestow", therefore it would mean "(lord of) granting, bestowing", which very likely originated from another deity associated with wealth or power, either as an epithet or even name.

*Dagaz Baldraz, Baldr
 * A variation of standard name is given as Bældæg in Old English and Baldag in Old Saxon, this connection with 'Day' clearly leads to the assumption that *bal- and *baldraz must mean "shining, bright". This would find a nice cognate in Baltic, Lithuanian báltas, "white".
 * The fact that the name is parsed as Bældæg however, leads to the implication that the name might have originally been *Balaz dagaz or *Dagaz balaz, originally. If the *-(d)raz was not original to the epithet, it could have been transferred from the proper name in another case of name-epithet
 * Alternatively, the former epithet could be connected with a root for "white, shining", in which case it would be "shining Day". The attestations of his name as Bældæg in OE, and a referral to as Phol in the Merseberg charms, from *bōl or *bal, rather supports this. Taking into account the forms *bōl, *bal, *baldraz, would lend one to assume a high degree of influence between the name and epithet, probably pointing to an original form of *Dōgraz balþaz, or *Dōgraz balaz, if the dental is epenthetic from the form *bal-raz, with extension of the *-ra- suffix from the name to the epithet.

*Ēgijaz, Ægir, "sea"
 * From earlier *h₁ēgʷʰ-yos or more properly *h₁e-h₁gʷʰ-yos, meaning "drink, thirst", a common euphemism for "water, sea". Probably related to Old English ēgor/ēogor, "high tide, flood; sea" < *ēgraz, which in turn is related to an r/n-stem found in Latin ēbrius and Ancient Greek nḗpʰōn, "drunk" and "not drunk".

*Fanþrijaz, Fenrir, "treader"/"swallower"
 * Mechanically requires either *fanþrijaz or *fannVrjaz. The former would have a cognate in the complex *fanþijaną, "to tread, travel by foot", and *fanþijô, "treader, pedestrian". Otherwise it could be reconstructed as pre-Germanic *kʷóm-tr-, "swallower; slurper" from *kʷem-, "to swallow, suck in", presenting with the exact environment found in other examples of *kw > *p.

*Felunjaz, Fjǫlnir

*Gautaz, ON Gautr
 * An epithet for "Odin". Very likely an o-grade, originally oxytonic agentive noun, *ǵʰowd-ós, meaning "pourer, caster > spawner", therefore the name meant "founder, originator, progenitor".
 * Another name for "Odin" containing the same name, *Algin-gautaz, very likely contains the original Germanic form of what Tacitus gives as "Alcis", a name for the divine twins, who are elsewhere in the Indo-European mythological sphere widely associated with youth and especially of being "protectors" of the people. Therefore the name can be associated with Germanic *algōną, "to protect, defend", and can be reconstructed as pre-Germanic dual *h₂elk-énh₁e or **h₂elk-ín(i)h₁, perhaps with the same suffix as in Lithuanian Ašvieniai and Sanskrit Aśvínā.

*Hanh(i)staz/*Hangistaz jahw Hrussô, OE Hengist, Horsa, ON hestr
 * The former name is properly *Hanhistaz > ON hestr. The West Germanic form *Hangistaz shows influence from the positive form of the unattested adjective *hanguz, cognate with Lithuanian šankús, "nimble, agile" both from earlier *ḱh̥₂nk-ús (nasal infix -n-'s generally don't assume syllabic stress from resonants or laryngeals). For the voicing between positive, comparative and superlative forms of an adjective, see *aldaz, *alþizô, *alþistaz. The meaning of *hanguz must have been "running, coursing" > "swift, fast", therefore *hanhistaz would mean "swiftest"; compare English 'courser'. If the original meaning were indeed "stallion" rather than a meaning similar to "courser", it would be difficult to see the meaning shift to "gelding" in OHG. Further compare Proto-Celtic *kanxstikā, "mare", which could have been borrowed from early Germanic, but does not formally require it.
 * The latter name is similar to *hrussą, "horse", albeit with a personalizing n-stem suffix. The stem *hruss- comes from the original past participle *hrussaz, "bellowed, roared", of the verb *hreutaną/*hrūtaną, "to bellow, roar, snore"; cf. English "to rut", from the iterative *hruttōną. Therefore the original meaning was "one who has rutted" > "stallion", compare the etymologically and semantically related *hruþjô, "male dog", literally "roarer > rutter".
 * The names are very likely a continuation of the tradition of the Divines Twins, *Algin(or regulurized *Algīz) or *Iwinō/*Iwiniz, who are otherwise in the IE sphere never referred to by personal names that could be reconstructed for PIE-proper.

*Hauhnijaz, Hœnir

*Humjaz, Hymir
 * An *etunaz in Norse mythology.
 * A relation to Germanic *him(i)naz is attractive with regards to his notably "hard head", but phonologically hard to reconcile with the generally accepted etymology of that word deriving it from an mn-stem *h₂ḱ-mn-. A derivation from a related m-stem, *h₂ḱ-m̥-yos (cf. Ancient Greek ἀκμή) is more plausible. In some mythologies, the head is often associated with the heavens.
 * As father of *Tīwaz, at least in North Mythology, a derivation from "heaven" makes sense; compare Greek 'Zeus' being descended from 'Ouranos', "heaven".
 * Possibly originally (before ON) part of a rhyming pair with *Jumjaz.

*Ingwaz frawjaz, Freyr
 * Better known by his epithet, *Frawjaz, "Lord". The element *Ingu-/*Ingw- is attested in personal names (LA Inguio-merus < *Ingwija-mēraz, as well as in Beowulf, OE Incge, "the leavings of Incge" referencing a sword. Extra-Germanically, we can assume a link with AG énkhos, "sword", pointing to a shared root *h₁engʰ-. In Germanic, due to the consistent labiovelar element, the original form should be reconstructed as *inguz, *ingw-.
 * Since Yngvi is associated with Freyr, whose twin is Freya (but who was earlier his wife, as well), and Yngvi himself is given a brother Skjöldr, it would presumably not be too farfetched to assume that Yngvi ("sword") and Skjöldr ("shield") are the original twins, the so-called divine horse twins. At some point, they were split up, and the "other twin" role was taken up by Freyr's wife/consort Freya, (whom one presumes to be earlier *Austrǭ frawjǭ, "Lady Dawn") as there does seem to be some overlap between the horse twins and the dawn goddess in some myths. Also, this would explain the awkwardness expressed in Old Norse sagas about the twins earlier being married.

*Istaz or *Istraz
 * Attested in the grouping Istvaeones/Istaevones

*Jumjaz, Ymir
 * Derived from a PIE stem, *yem-; this could in turn be related to forms for words and names denoting "twin" in other PIE languages. It would then be related to Latin geminus, Italic *jeminos.
 * Possibly originally (before ON) part of a rhyming pair with *Humjaz.
 * Based on his role and the meaning of a (different?) stem *yem-, meaning "stretch out; support, hold", his name could little mean "foundation; support". Along with *Humjaz, "heaven, sky", *Ēgijaz, "sea", and possibly also *Gumjaz, "earth, land", point to an earlier subset of beings analogous to the Ancient Greek primordial beings. Possibly also the barely attested name 'Kyrmir/*Kurmijaz if his name derives from *kwerraną, "to devour, consume", in which case he might be the counterpart to Greek Kʰáos.

*Lukô, Loki > "closer, restrainer" or "locked (away) one"
 * First and foremost an - if not the - enemy of the gods, and especially of Thor, mirroring the very common theme of "Storm God vs Serpent", compare Sanskrit "Indra" vs "Vṛtrá", the latter whose name also means "covering, restraining". The "demonic" or monstrous personifications of this figure are instead shown to be his rather one-dimensional - albeit vastly important - sons: the giant serpent titled "Jǫrmungandr" and the wolf titled "Fenrir" or "Fenris(') wolf". There are few but specific parallels between the Sanskrit and Germanic tales: "Indra" fights a demonic serpent who closes off the "waters of the world" and must be slain, and subsequently his brother, classed as a "demon" or "cave", Valá, who captures and locks away the (presumably sacred) cows and the goddess of dawn, "Uṣás", sealing off the wealth and liveliness of the world before he too, is sundered.


 * While "Loki" doesn't accomplish this himself, he is responsible for the serpent that "closes off the waters" and responsible for the abduction of Iðunn, resulting in the loss of the god's immortality, i.e. their power and liveliness. And while there is a confused mention of "sons of Loki" named Váli and Nar(f)i, whose rather quick deaths and no further mention causes them to often be regarded as an error: their given names are interpretable as *Wēlô, "pressing in > enclosing" or "enclosing one" (< *wel-, "to press together", cf. AG εἰλέω, "to shut in") and *Narwô, "confining" or "confined one", (< Germanic *narwaz, "narrow, confining"). These semantic connections would then make it possible to connect them to the monstrous "Jǫrmungandr", a giant Serpent who encloses the world, and "Fenrir" or "Fenris(') wolf", a giant Wolf that is afterwards bound and chained by the gods... It would then make sense to assume large parts of the story are missing or changed.


 * It is also interesting to note, the identification of *Narwô as specifically a wolf that is bound, could very well be secondary to later Old Norse in order to match the meaning of the name to an understandably monstrous creature, as wolves were so reviled in Old Norse that the name itself was taboo, and the species was instead called vargr, "outlaw, thief". Instead the speculative connection with Sanskrit could allow us to instead picture *Narwô as indeed a "cave" or a "demon/monster in a cave". This connection is especially compelling as it would allow us to connect the two monstrous sons of Loki, the enemy of the gods, with another pair of such villainous creatures in Germanic literature: the "monster in a cave" Grendel and the unnamed "great dragon" in the tale known as Beowulf, a mighty hero of men who dies fighting the same serpent, much as the mighty Thor is meant to fall against the gigantic World Serpent. Further, Grendel's mother could have been based very loosely on Loki's other famous child, Hel, or *Haljō, again with the - apparently thematic - meaning "covering", or possibly "covered/veiled one", a meaning which conservatively begs the drawing of parallels with Irish Cailleach, "veiled one", described as a divine ancestral "hag" of inhuman appearance.


 * If this were the case, the tale of Beowulf would then have been a modernized(/Christianized) re-rendering of ancient themes into contemporary tales understandable and relatable to Christian audiences, just as at that same time, the "gods of old" were similarly being re-rendered as the ancestors of royalty.


 * Secondarily, his widespread mention in tales and myths shows an extreme amount of syncretism, likely assuming the roles in stories from other figures, like for example *Surhtuz, whose importance in Ragnarök is rather understated by very little mention.

*Mannaz buraz/*Manuz buraz, Borr, Mannus
 * The name *Manuz, oblique *Manwa-, "thinking > thinker", therefore his name was originally either *Manuz buraz or *Manwaz buraz > *Mannaz buraz, "born thinking". The Mannus recorded by Tacitus as ancestor of mankind. Probably influenced, or even influenced by, the similar sounding *man-, "earthlings > mankind", from earlier *dʰǵʰm-on- originally an n-stem but secondarily reinterpreted as a collective consonant stem *(dʰǵʰ)mon-s in contrast to the reinterpreted singulative *guman-, "man, adult human" from the oblique *(dʰ)ǵʰm̥-n-. For the singulative/collective split, compare collective/plurale tantum *durz in contrast to Gothic daurons < *durōniz (pl), "two doors".

*Mīmijaz, Mímir
 * Mechanically requires pre-Germanic *mey-m- or *miH-m-. The former would allow derivation, reduplicated *mey-mi-yos from either *mey-, "to exchange" (either his well's ability to exchange information, or his role as exchanged hostage), or *mey-, "to fix" > "to bind, attach" (his role again as hostage to strengthen relations). The latter formation fits the zero-grade of names like *Jumjaz and *Humjaz, but doesn't seem to present a preferable etymological motivation. Also note the particularly thorough alliterative quality in "Mímameiðr" < *meymiyos(yo) moytos.

*... narwô/'''*... narwaz'''
 * An epithet. The original or primary meaning of *narwaz was "confining" or "oppressive", which Old English attests very well. The adjectives 'confining', 'oppressive' are also naturally linked to "darkness", which is doubtless the original name of this being, being the father of *Nahtō, "Night". In this regard he would be comparable to Ancient Greek Érebos, who is also associated with Nyx, "Night".
 * His original name however is hard to determine, Germanic as it turns out, has many terms relating to "dark" and "darkness". At least three words stand above the rest as likely candidates, owing to their primacy and especially the fact their stems contain a labial element, which would naturally attract this particular adjective as an epithet in the first place: *rekwaz, obl. *rikwiz-, "darkness", is probably the most likely candidate, being directly cognate to Ancient Greek Érebos, but is also used often poetically in Old Norse in reference to the gods (cf. "ragna røkr", a play on "ragna rök"). Also likely are *merk(w)uz and *dinkwaz, the latter even showing signs of an o-grade *dankwaz, which might have been influenced by the epithet.
 * Therefore, his name might have been *Rekwaz narwaz, *Merkwô narwô or *Dinkwô narwô/*Dankwô narwô.

*Nerþuz, Njǫrðr
 * Although technically one of the Vanir in Norse mythology, there doesn't seem to be a reason to assume this distinction goes back to Proto-Germanic times.
 * His association with the sea lends one to assume a connection with the root *(h₁)ner-, "below", found also in *nurþeraz, "north". Cf. Ancient Greek ἔνερθε, also νέρθε, "from beneath, up from below".
 * With the same etymology above, this deity being associated with wealth and fertility would also allow him to be connected with Latin Dīs Pater and Greek Hádēs/Háidēs, later referred to Ploútōn, "wealthy one", as wealth was associated with coming from beneath the earth. This meaning might also have helped foster Tacitus' confusion of Nerthus with *Erþō, "(mother) earth"

*Skelduz - ("shield") - ON Skjöldr, OE Sċyld
 * A figure whose name literally means "shield". In myths where Odin comes from Asia/Scythia (which is probably the relic of a cultural memory of the Germanic migration out of the Pontic Steppe; otherwise a highly coincidental, and accurate, guess), he leaves Sweden to his Son Yngvi ("sword/weapon") (from earlier *inguz, although later *Ingwô/*Ingwijô) and Denmark to his son Skjöld ("shield") (from earlier *skelduz). It is very likely that these two sons represent the divine horse twins, who do not seem to have been named in PIE, at least their names weren't recorded in Sanskrit anyway: in Germanic, they're assumed to be Hengest and Horsa, whose names literally just mean "horse and horse", but that is probably just an OE survival or the same story, two brothers invading and conquering new lands. It would seem then, the Germanic tribes earlier had given them the names "sword" (or "weapon") and "shield", the two most important possessions of a warrior, for which they were considered to be the best, and champions thereof. Since Yngvi is identifiable with Freyr, or *Frawjaz, it would seem then that his place in the twin motif was original, but his twin was shifted from Skjöldr to his wife/consort *Frawjǭ, probably earlier *Austrǭ, which would explain the awkwardness of their being described as earlier married to each other.
 * Trying to match this figure to other figures featured in Norse mythology has not led yet to any reasonable connections.

*Surhtuz, Surtr
 * Usually connected to *swartaz, "black", but this adjectival base *sword- is restricted to Italic and Germanic, with no other ablaut given. Rather, it is far more attractive to derive it as an agentive tu-stem (as *hleftuz, "thief", from *hlefaną, "to steal) to the stem *swerkaną, "to darken, make gloomy", giving an original meaning "one who darkens", with the added benefit of the name now being related to the Slavic deity Svarog, also a god of fire (cf. Kroonen 2013, page 500, "*swerkan-", for the connection of the root).

*Tīwaz (fadēr), Týr/Tiw/Ziu
 * Originally the leader of the Germanic pantheon, as his name literally just means "God", or more particularly "of the heavens". His original epithet was probably "father", as in Ancient Greek πατήρ Ζεύς, and Latin Iūpiter. After Celtic contact, his association with Celtic *Noudonts, king of the gods who loses his hand and forfeits his right to rule, led to his demotion to a lesser deity and an immense and confusing restructuring of the Germanic pantheon. He retains his domains of honor, singular combat and war. His domains of the sky, thunder and strength were taken by his son, *Fergunjaz or *Ermō, a god of mountains and probably smithing, better known by his epithet *þunraz, "Thor", "the thundering". His domain as leader of the gods was assumed by *Wōdaz (istraz?), later *Wōdanaz, the messenger god, god of oaths, trade, poetry, and acting psychopomp, equating to Ancient Greek Hermḗs and Latin Mercurius, and especially owing to his promotion, to Celtic *Lugus (< *lugʰús, "swearing (oaths)"). His role as god of kingship, virility and sunshine was assumed by *Ingwaz frawjaz, who was probably also originally his son and god of war and agriculture.

*Þunraz/*Þōraz, Þunor/Donar/Þór
 * The former originally being an epithet, "thundering...", from *(s)tn̥h₂-rós (compare Celtic *Taranis which might feature metathesis, possibly originally *Tanaris; but see below)
 * The latter *Þōraz should be reconstructed independently of the former, as Old Norse Þór could not have developed from Proto-Germanic *Þunraz, for which we could only expect a reflex **Þundr, just as ON timbr from PG *timrą; although this can't be proved or disproved without finding the reflex of at least one other instance of the intervocalic cluster -VnrV- in Old Norse.
 * Further, this reconstruction could allow connection to the Anatolian reflex of the storm god, Hittite Tarḫunna, and so both could be reconstructed from the root *terh₂-, "to overcome": this is attractive in regards to their respective roles as "serpent-slayers". In light of this alternative reconstruction, the Celtic *Taranis could also be an attestation of the root, from *tr̥h₂-en- or *tr̥h₂-n-. Although the connection with Tarḫunna might be less direct, as the root of the name is reconstructed as *terh₂-u- (the same root but with an extension -u-) by Kloekhorst.
 * Perhaps altogether then, we can reconstruct *Þōraz þunraz ("thundering protector/savior") as if *torh₂-ós (s)tn̥h₂-rós (the -ō- in Germanic being a secondary o-grade of roots fitting the strong class 6 type), compare SA tārá ("carrying across", attributively "savior, protector" used of Rudra) < *torh₂-ós.
 * Although, the Sanskrit form does imply that *þōraz is, again, originally an epithet. If that were the case, the original name of the deity might then be presumed to be *Þrumiz, the "King of the Jötnar" (who are presumably themselves just older gods or relics/memories of gods), having been slain by Þórr to reclaim *Mjǫlnir. The name *Þrumiz ("rumbling, thundering", < *trm̥H-is) can be related to LI trem̃ti, "to banish, drive away, trample", from earlier *tremH-, "to cause to tremble, instill fear". Compare also ON þruma ("to roar, thunder") and þruma ("noise, thunder") from earlier *þrumm/mōną and *þrumǭ; further, OE þrymm (< *þrumjaz) ("great host; force, power; glory, majesty"). So perhaps we're looking at a more ancient *Þrumiz þunraz ("rumbling Thunder") and *Þrumiz þōraz ("protecting Thunder").

*Warunjaz, Vǫrnir
 * Although not much else is known but his name, it certainly looks quite old.

*Wēlundaz (obl. *Walanþa-), "Wayland (the smith)"
 * Inflecting similarly to "evening", *ēbundaz/*af(t)anþa- < *h₁éh₁-p(t)-n̥t-/*h₁h̥₁-pt-ónt-, therefore probably earlier *(H)wéh₁-l-n̥t-/*(H)wh̥₁-l-ónt-.

*Wēlô, Váli
 * Presumably from pre-Germanic *wēl-o-, lengthened grade of *wel-, "to press in, enclose". Formally very close to Lithuanian Vélnias/Velnỹs/Vẽlinas, "devil, demon", however Derksen (2015) prefers a connection with Lithuanian Vėlė̃, "soul, ghost", which he connects with Germanic *walaz, "souls of the slain". The suffix of Vélnias looks like it might go back to earlier *Wēlnjas or *Wēlin(j)as, which is remarkable similar to the Germanic deity suffixes *-nijaz or *-unjaz; the latter especially because of Germanic *Fergunjaz, a name which very likely earlier referred to *Þunraz, or at least his role as "mountain and storm god" before becoming the "sky and storm god" after the likely demotion of *Tīwaz.
 * Although the existence of Loki's son Váli has been questioned, the name certainly looks like it's in the right place in a cave and related to enemies of a storm-god, reminiscent of Sanskrit Valá, less specifically to Slavic Veles, enemy of Perun, and possibly further to Lithuanian Vel, however there are objections to the at least Sanskrit, and possibly Slavic being truly cognate; the closest actual cognate to Sanskrit Valá would be *Warunjaz. There are three acceptable meanings of a name of this shape in regards especially to the circumstance, the first being "pressing together, enclosing", second "winding, turning", and third "beating, striking".
 * It should be noted that both names of Loki's sons, Váli and Narfi, are recorded also as names of other deities. This is probably not altogether a difficulty, as the names are likely epithets anyway. Narfi would simply mean "confinement", or "imprisonment", while Váli could be taken to mean "enclosing" or even "binding".

*Wōda(na)z, Óðin, Wōden
 * His name would have originally been *Wōdaz or *Wōdiz (cf. Celtic *Wātis, "prophet"), acquiring the leader suffix *-anaz only after replacing *Tīwaz as head of the Germanic pantheon. This event must have been recent, as he seems to have been in close competition with the gods *Þunraz and *Frawjaz for popularity and devotion.

*Wulþuz, Ullr

Uncertain
*... būrô, probably **Twistô būrô, Búri
 * An archaic epithet. Cognate with Sanskrit bhū́ri, "much, many, numerous, great". As Tacitus relates that Mannus was the son of Tuisto, and this page has associated Mannus with Old Norse Bǫrr(see *Mannaz barwaz below), the logical conclusion is that Búri and Tuisto would then be one and the same, all the more appealing as they both share the n-stem declension, as also seen in *Austrǭ frawjǭ. Therefore, his name could very well have originally been *Twistô būrô, "(the) great/mighty Second(most)".
 * His name, almost certainly a reference to his being the second being in existence, could likely mean "second-most", after *furistaz, "firstmost", or from pre-Germanic *dwi-sth₂-, "second standing".
 * His epithet, *būrô, could mean either "great, mighty", very likely as he is described as such in the Prose Edda, "mikill ok máttugr", or less likely it could mean "numerous, abundant", a reference to his being the ancestor of all mankind.

*... fullǭ, Fulla/Volla
 * Rather looks like an epithet, "... the full (one)".

*... hulþō-
 * Definitely an epithet, *... hulþō or *... hulþǭ, "favorable, gracious"...

Locations
* ... drasilaz, Yggdrasill
 * The second element *drasilaz or *drasulaz, is an extended form of what was originally *drasą, "(that is) leapt upon, mounted", an s-stem extension of the root *dʰerh₃-, "to leap upon, mount", derived as if *dʰrh̥́₃-s-om, like *glasą and *grasą < *gʰlh̥́₁-s-om and *gʰrh̥́₁-s-om, from *glōaną and *grōaną, respectively. Very clearly a post-PIE but pre-Germanic innovation.
 * The second element *drasilaz or *drasulaz, is an extended form of what was originally *drasą, "(that is) leapt upon, mounted", an s-stem extension of the root *dʰerh₃-, "to leap upon, mount", derived as if *dʰrh̥́₃-s-om, like *glasą and *grasą < *gʰlh̥́₁-s-om and *gʰrh̥́₁-s-om, from *glōaną and *grōaną, respectively. Very clearly a post-PIE but pre-Germanic innovation.

*him(i)naz, "heaven"
 * Shows also a form *hebnaz (or *hibnaz, if due to loss of medial -i-), and a dissimilatory *him(i)laz (in Germanic -n- dissimilates to -l-, *newognos > *newaknaz > *newaklaz, cf. Gothic 𐌽𐌹𐌿𐌺𐌻𐌰𐌷𐍃).

Miscellaneous associations
*Leufan-, Leuphana
 * A town/city attested in Ptolemy. The Germanic root *leuf-, would also be the source of *laubą, "leaf", *luftuz/*luftą, "air", and an iterative *luppōną/*lub(b)ōną, "to send into the air, elevate" (cf English 'lob'). The primary meaning seems to be "air, elevation", also "sky". A form *h₃lewp- would also allow connection with Ancient Greek Ὄλυμπος, "(projecting into the) sky", < *h₃lu-n-p-.
 * Since the location of ancient Leuphana seems to be commonly identified in Northern Germany, places of low elevation, it is attractive to assume the town was named after a deity, masculine *Leufanaz or feminine *Leufanō, "(master) of the sky", all the more acceptable with regards to the inclusion of the "leader suffix", *-anaz.