User:Burgundaz/Indo-European stuff

Particles
Proto-Indo-European possessed monosyllabic particles with a wide range of meanings that have recently got my attention. They seem to have vacillated between short and long-grade, with the vowels *-e/-ē and *-o/-ō, possibly also *-i. Some of these particles were later developed as adverbs/prepositions, and others as enclitics.

Some forms, especially in Ancient Greek, show a nasal extension. Also in Ancient Greek, forms with expected short -é often show up as -á for an uncertain reason. Possibly the forms with nasal extension saw reduction, Cen > Cn̥..

For the most part it looks like -e and -o were the formative vowels, with lengthening as a variant. It's also possible the "lengthening" in some of these are actually a (pro)nominalization to endings in *-h₁ and *-h₂, also some forms, especially negative *ne seem to have been extending by *-i, locative or dative in origin(?). Cf. Gothic nei, Latin nī, Balto-Slavic *nei.


 * *bʰe/*bʰē - 'manner'
 * *bʰḗ/*bʰé-h₁
 * Ancient Greek pʰḗ, "as, like as"
 * Possibly Proto-Germanic *-bē, forms adverbs meaning "as ..."


 * *bʰ(e)-i, "in that manner; similar to", secondary zero-grade locative?
 * Ancient Greek ípʰi, "by force", < *wíh₁-pʰi, pʰílos, "dear, beloved", < *pʰi-l-, with same adjective extensions as in the correlatives pēlíkos, "what kind", tēlíkos, "such kind", also found in Latin quālis, "what kind"
 * Proto-Germanic *bi, possibly also *bī, in the sense of 'manner, cause', which became homophonous with *bi, "near, about", < *h₁pí; also Proto-Germanic *biliz, "of similar or like kind", < *bʰi-l-, with same suffix *-lis as Ancient Greek and Latin above, as well as *biliþją, "likeness, similarity (to one)", with same collective suffix as in *hamiþją, "coverings", *aikiþją, "oak grove"; see English kind and Latin gentilis for sense development of "like kind" to "gentle, kind, decent".


 * *bʰo -


 * *bʰó
 * Proto-Balto-Slavic *bo


 * *bʰṓ/*bʰó-h₁
 * Proto-Germanic *bō, "even, like so", possibly adverbial *-bō, "like ..."


 * *de - limit; "up to; away from"
 * *dé
 * Ancient Greek dé
 * *dḗ/*dé-h₁
 * Ancient Greek dḗ
 * Latin dē
 * Proto-Celtic *dī
 * *dé-m
 * Ancient Greek -dēn;


 * *do - "to, towards"
 * *do
 * Proto-Celtic *do
 * Proto-Germanic *ta
 * *dom
 * Ancient Greek éndon
 * Proto-Celtic *andom
 * *dō
 * Latin endo
 * Proto-Celtic *dū
 * Proto-Germanic *tō
 * Proto-Slavic *da (< PBS *dō)


 * *dʰe/*dʰē - locative
 * *dʰe
 * Ancient Greek -tʰe/-tʰa, "at; from"
 * *dʰe-m
 * Ancient Greek -tʰen, 'ablative', "from", possibly -tʰa;
 * Ancient Greek -tʰen, 'ablative', "from", possibly -tʰa;


 * *ǵe/*ǵē - emphatic
 * Ancient Greek ge, "at least, at any rate''.


 * ''*gʰe¹ - emphatic
 * Proto-Balto-Slavic *gʰe, 'emphatic'
 * Sanskrit ha, 'emphatic'


 * *gʰe or *ǵʰe - benefactive/directive?
 * *gʰe-i/*gʰí
 * Latin pronominal singular first-person dative suffix mihi, earlier Proto-Italic *meɣei < *megʰei
 * Sanskrit hi, "for, on account of"; also the singular first person pronominal dative suffix mahyam vs mabhy- in the non-singular, from Proto-Indo-Iranian *maȷ́ʰyam or *maǰʰyam, earlier *me-gʰi-/*me-ǵʰi


 * *gʰo/*gʰō - "at least, indeed, surely"
 * Proto-Balto-Slavic *-ga (> Slavic *-go), "than"
 * Sanskrit gʰa, "at least, verily"


 * *gʷʰe¹ - "located at" (locative)
 * *gʷʰ(e)i - "located at" (locative)
 * Ancient Greek -tʰi, -pʰi, autótʰi, autópʰi, "the very spot"
 * Sanskrit -hi, as in amúrhi, "at that time", kárhi, "at what time"


 * *gʷʰe² - emphatic
 * Ancient Greek eítʰe, "if that, if only..."
 * Proto-Balto-Slavic *gʰe, 'emphatic'
 * Sanskrit ha, 'emphatic'


 * *h₁e/*h₁ē¹ - affirmative/emphatic
 * Ancient Greek ḗ, "certainly, really"
 * Proto-Germanic *-ē, 'emphatic', (> OHG ihh-ā, "I myself")
 * possibly Sanskrit ā́, "as, like", 'emphasizing or strengthening the meaning'


 * *h₁e/*h₁ē² -
 * Proto-Germanic *ē-, "away from"


 * *Ho/*Hō¹ - interjection; vocative
 * Ancient Greek ṓ, 'interjection'; Latin ō, 'interjection'; Proto-Celtic *ō, 'vocative particle; Proto-Germanic *a, 'interjection', "ah!", and *ō 'interjection', "oh!"; Sanskrit a, 'vocative' and 'interjection of pity', and ā, 'interjection of reminiscence


 * *Ho/*Hō² -
 * Proto-Germanic *ō-, prefix "


 * *ḱe - "here"
 * ''*ḱe-m-t-
 * Proto-Germanic *hinder, "following > behind"
 * *ḱ(e)i, secondary zero-grade locative?, "at this place; here"


 * *ḱo - "at, inside, into; with; alongside"
 * *ḱó-m
 * Latin cum
 * Proto-Celtic *kom-
 * Proto-Germanic *ham- and *ga-
 * Sanskrit śám
 * *ḱ(ó)-m-t-
 * Ancient Greek katá, kasí-
 * Proto-Celtic *kanti/*kanta-
 * *ḱo-t-
 * Hittite katta, "downwards; alongside with"


 * *kʷe - "again, further; and; whether"; generalizing
 * *kʷe
 * Ancient Greek té/tá
 * Latin -que
 * Proto-Germanic *-hw and *-uh
 * Sanskrit ca
 * *kʷe-m
 * Ancient Greek -ten, -ken and possibly ká if from secondary zero-grade *kʷḿ̥
 * Proto-Germanic *-hwin (or *-hun < *kʷḿ̥?, see preceding), *-ugin, 'generalized, indefinite' (often accompanied by *ne/*ni
 * Sanskrit -ca and -cam < *kʷḿ̥ < *kʷem?


 * *me/*mē¹ - prohibitive/negative
 * Ancient Greek má (< *mé) and mḗ, also mén and mḗn; Sanskrit mā́, "not"


 * *me² - affirmative, emphatic
 * *me
 * *me-m/*mē-m
 * Ancient Greek má (< secondary *mḿ̥?), also mén and mḗn, "certainly"
 * *me-ti?
 * Ancient Greek Doricmés
 * Latin -met


 * *mo/*mō - "if, however"
 * Proto-Celtic *mā (only if enclitics resisted the change *-ō > *-ū); Hittite -ma, "and, but"


 * *ne/*nē¹ - negative
 * *ne
 * Latin ne; Proto-Celtic *ne; Proto-Germanic *ne (stressed), *ni (unstressed);
 * *nē
 * Latin *nē; Proto-Celtic *nī; Proto-Germanic *nē
 * *nei
 * Latin nī; Proto-Germanic *nī


 * *ne/*nē² - affirmative
 * Ancient Greek -ne (dialectal) and nḗ, 'affirmative particle'; Latin -ne, "then, whether" and nē, "truly, indeed"; Sanskrit ná, "as, like"


 * **no/*nō
 * Proto-Balto-Slavic *nō


 * *se - "one" (general)
 * *se-m
 * *sē-m/*seh₁-m


 * *so, "one" (specific)
 * *so-m
 * Ancient Greek hómos, "same", also secondary zero-grade háma, "at the same time"
 * Proto-Baltic-Slavic *som
 * Proto-Germanic *samaz, *same
 * Sanskrit sám


 * *to
 * Proto-Celtic *to, "to"


 * *we/*wē - "or"
 * Latin -ve, "or"
 * Sanskrit vā, "or"

e-grade and zero-grade
*dém-ōr/*dm̥-né-, "building (material)" < *dem-, "to build" - Proto-Celtic *damniyos, Proto-Germanic *timrą
 * If a laryngeal were present as is sometimes reconstructed for this root, *demH-, we would expect Celtic *dmānyos instead, which we see in Latin (d)māteria. Instead the laryngeal must have been some kind of root extension in the other languages.

*ǵʰéh₂-mr̥/*ǵʰh̥₂-mén-, "palate" < *ǵʰeh₂-, "to open" - PBS *gaʔmur-; Proto-Germanic *gōmô, oblique *gaumin-
 * With pretonic change of -a- to -au- before a single intervocalic labial, -aBV́- > -auBV́-, as in *hafudą, oblique *haubiþa-, there is no need to assume pre-Germanic *ǵʰeh₂u-mn-.

o-grade and zero-grade
*ǵʰólH-r̥/*ǵʰl̥H-én-, "distress, pain" < *ǵʰelH-, "to be distressed" - Proto-Celtic *galaros, "distress, pain"; Proto-Germanic *galraz, "swelling, pain", also *gallô, "skin damage, lesion"
 * In view of the double reflex, either Germanic held on to the ablauting of this word for a long time, or split it off into two stems very early.