User:Xenos melophilos/Khalaj grammar

THIS IS A WORK IN PROGRESS

Nouns
The normal word formation is:
 * Stem + derivational suffix + plural + possessive + case

When it comes the suffix, it may be go on:
 * Stem + derivational suffix + plural + possessive + case +  + plural + possessive + case

Plurals
The common plural suffix is /. For example:

There's also the suffix, borrowed from and it allows a family to be mentioned by a single member. Also compare:

Possessives
The 3rd person singular possessive ~ may also stand for the plural counterpart.

Nominative
The nominative is a endingless case. It has the following functions:
 * Subject: The basis of the nominal and verbal predicate.
 * Existential basis: The basis of existential sentences.
 * Predicate noun or adjective.
 * It's the case of making something.
 * Usually replaces the genitive when forming compounds.
 * Temporal.
 * Direction (similar to dative and locative).
 * "Order" (as in "three glasses of beer", "a flock of sheep").
 * Apposition.
 * Parataxis.
 * Topic.
 * 1)  ,   ,  ? (“That wolf, whose head hurts all the time, what's wrong with it?”).
 * Indefinite direct object.
 * Vocative:
 * 1) ! (“Dad!”).
 * 2) ! (“Mullah!”).
 * Direction (similar to dative and locative).
 * "Order" (as in "three glasses of beer", "a flock of sheep").
 * Apposition.
 * Parataxis.
 * Topic.
 * 1)  ,   ,  ? (“That wolf, whose head hurts all the time, what's wrong with it?”).
 * Indefinite direct object.
 * Vocative:
 * 1) ! (“Dad!”).
 * 2) ! (“Mullah!”).
 * Parataxis.
 * Topic.
 * 1)  ,   ,  ? (“That wolf, whose head hurts all the time, what's wrong with it?”).
 * Indefinite direct object.
 * Vocative:
 * 1) ! (“Dad!”).
 * 2) ! (“Mullah!”).
 * Indefinite direct object.
 * Vocative:
 * 1) ! (“Dad!”).
 * 2) ! (“Mullah!”).
 * 1) ! (“Dad!”).
 * 2) ! (“Mullah!”).

Genitive
The genitive suffix is /  after consonant ( /  after the suffix ) and  after vowels. It's used for making compounds. It can also be used predicatively:

Dative
The dative suffix is /. The dative denotes the target point of an action. The object is not seen as a whole (as the accusative), but only as a target point.
 * The dative expresses an exchange value.
 * The dative can describe who or what something is intended for.
 * Time indication + dative = exactly at the specified desired time (it means a point in time).
 * Sometimes, the dative is used when the locative would be expected.
 * The dative expresses vow and hope.
 * 1)   ? (“Should the oath be with the bread?”).
 * Time indication + dative = exactly at the specified desired time (it means a point in time).
 * Sometimes, the dative is used when the locative would be expected.
 * The dative expresses vow and hope.
 * 1)   ? (“Should the oath be with the bread?”).
 * Sometimes, the dative is used when the locative would be expected.
 * The dative expresses vow and hope.
 * 1)   ? (“Should the oath be with the bread?”).
 * The dative expresses vow and hope.
 * 1)   ? (“Should the oath be with the bread?”).
 * 1)   ? (“Should the oath be with the bread?”).

Accusative
The accusative suffix is /  after consonants and  after vowels (yeah the post-vocalic form of accusative, genitive and 2nd person singular possessive are the same). The accusative refers to the clearly defined “direct” = holistically recorded object. Sometimes the accusative and dative may altenate.
 * It can be understood as accusativus relationis.
 * It's used to express time:
 * It can be understood as accusativus relationis.
 * It's used to express time:
 * It's used to express time:
 * It's used to express time:

Locative
The locative suffix is /. Its main meaning is "rest in or near a place" or "movement within the place or near it".
 * The locative is rarely used temporally, when it's used thus, it means "within a longer period of time, of which a significant or all part is taken".
 * The locative is often used to indicate a goal at which one wants to linger longer, however, it should be noted that locative instead of dative only applies to the verb of movement or moving.
 * : “  ” (“He said: ‘I go to the mountain and settle down’”).
 * The locative is often used to indicate a goal at which one wants to linger longer, however, it should be noted that locative instead of dative only applies to the verb of movement or moving.
 * : “  ” (“He said: ‘I go to the mountain and settle down’”).
 * The locative is often used to indicate a goal at which one wants to linger longer, however, it should be noted that locative instead of dative only applies to the verb of movement or moving.
 * : “  ” (“He said: ‘I go to the mountain and settle down’”).
 * : “  ” (“He said: ‘I go to the mountain and settle down’”).

Ablative
The ablative suffix is /  or  /. Usually this is the case of distancing (“where from”).
 * It is used in the sense of "along, behind, through".
 * It's used temporally, mainly in the sense of "every":,.
 * It has a comparative function.
 * It's used as partitive.
 * It's used as a predicate in the sense of "belonging to".
 * It expresses the means from which something is completed.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It has a comparative function.
 * It's used as partitive.
 * It's used as a predicate in the sense of "belonging to".
 * It expresses the means from which something is completed.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It's used as a predicate in the sense of "belonging to".
 * It expresses the means from which something is completed.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It's used as a predicate in the sense of "belonging to".
 * It expresses the means from which something is completed.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It expresses the means from which something is completed.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.
 * It expresses the reason or cause.

Instrumental
The instrumental suffix is /  or  /  (though sometimes it may alternate with ablative). It has the following functions:
 * Means and tools with which an activity is carried out.
 * To be equipped with something.
 * Comitative sense.
 * Conjunctive, mostly with.
 * Adverbial.
 * When speaking to oneself.
 * Comitative sense.
 * Conjunctive, mostly with.
 * Adverbial.
 * When speaking to oneself.
 * Adverbial.
 * When speaking to oneself.
 * Adverbial.
 * When speaking to oneself.
 * When speaking to oneself.

Equative
5 suffixes and one preposition stand for the equative, being the most common. The other forms are, , , and. It's used to express comparison and similarity.
 * For quantity, the suffix is.
 * For quantity, the suffix is.
 * For quantity, the suffix is.

Article
Though there's not a definite article, there's a indefinite. Usually it's used with singular nouns, though when it comes the plural, the indefinite article changes it's meaning to "some", "a few".

The indefinite article has 3 forms:, , and …. Commonly, forms 1 and 3 may alternate. Before some finite forms of the auxiliary verb, the suffix shortens: …  +  =.

Usually:
 * Forms 2 and 3 are used with and.


 * Before words with possessive or case suffixes, form 1 is used


 * After, and , form 2 is used.
 * 1)   ? (“What news is there?”).
 * 2)  ! (“What a city it is!”).


 * After an adjective, form 1 is used.

It's not obligatory to use the indefinite article, though it's rare.

However, is obligatory not to use the indefinite article with predicate.

Adpositions
Turkic postpositions, unlike other languages, are used as if they were nouns (possessives and cases). Some postpositions are:

and are often used in roughly the same sense.

Persian influence
There are also adpositions of Persian origin, for example:
 * From :
 * ,, (the last is from **nə̂rsə bərây + 3 person singular possessive + dative).
 * From :
 * From and :
 * From and :
 * From and :


 * From :

The adposition, unlike othe Turkic languages, doesn't need possessive suffixes, but a word in dative case which must be before.

However, rarely can be inflected. Furthermore, it receives possessive suffixes (or genitive) when it is used as an agent of a passive sentence.

Another Persian adposition is, which can be used as pre-, circum- ,and postposition.
 * Place:
 * Place:


 * Time:

can also be used as a conjunction.

Izâfa
In Khalaj, the links two words together (both Persian and native words). The suffix / stands for it.



It's used also for Persian prepositions

Adverbs
The distinction between the adverb, substantives, adpositions and adjectives is extremely complicated. Adverbs have the following characteristics:
 * Adverbs often coincide with adpositions.
 * Adverbs often coincide with adjectives. Some adjectives are also used as adverbs.
 * Adverbs often coincide with adjectives. Some adjectives are also used as adverbs.
 * Adverbs often coincide with adjectives. Some adjectives are also used as adverbs.
 * Adverbs often coincide with adjectives. Some adjectives are also used as adverbs.

Adverbs also have some special morphological markings, namely:
 * ' / ', ' / ', ' / ', and ' / ', found in the adverbs, , , , , , and  (there is also  and.
 * Nominal suffixes, found in the locative adverbs, , and.


 * The instrumental case suffix, that appears in , ,.
 * The ablative suffix /, used for example in:

Personal and demonstrative pronouns

 * Besides, , there are also ,
 * Genitive forms end in /  after the suffix.
 * The infix /  can appear in the form  /  after the equative.
 * The infix /  (or  / ) can also appear in the 3rd person plural by analogy with the 3rd person singular (thus this infix is optional regarding to the 3rd person plural).
 * The nasal Anlaut of the inflected forms of coexists with the plosive Anlaut (analogy with the nominative form).

Besides the former pronouns, there's also, which it's used like the above (though the difference between simple pronouns and is too subtle to deduce). Its inflection is based on possessive suffixes

Derived from

 * The interrogative pronoun /  appears in 4 forms.

Commmonly, it appears as in,  and before a suffix that starts with a vowel. Normally it appears as elsewhere and in.


 * Interrogatives and  coincide:,.
 * Besides the former, also means . Other interrogative locative adverbs are:   and.
 * stands for.

Derived from

 * The interrogative pronoun appears specially in derived terms, but it survives alone in sentences like:


 * Some derived terms from :
 * ,, ( + indefinite article = , ).
 * 1)  (the common word for this meaning),,  (conflation of  and ).
 * ,, ( + indefinite article = , ).
 * 1)  (the common word for this meaning),,  (conflation of  and ).
 * 1)  (the common word for this meaning),,  (conflation of  and ).

Other pronouns

 * Reciprocal pronoun: (declinable).
 * Reflexive pronoun: (declinable).
 * Indefinite personal pronoun: Though it doesn't exist, the 3rd person plural may be translated to "one" when it comes to verbs:
 * 1) (Context: God created the ancestor of the Khalaj)  .
 * 2) (Context: A lure puts a whole grape, not a berry, into the fruit seller's mouth at once)    .
 * 1) (Context: A lure puts a whole grape, not a berry, into the fruit seller's mouth at once)    .

Adjectives
As in all Turkic languages, the adjective is distinguished from the noun by the fact that it is not inflected, so in contrast to the verb there is not even plural congruence.

Comparative
The comparative has the Persian suffix /. This suffix is equivalent to  (whence   [compare plural ]) and  (whence  ), and they even have the Persian suffix:,.

The comparative appears with the ablative /  as comparison case.

Some examples:
 * 1)     (here  is treated as a noun adjective).
 * 1)     (here  is treated as a noun adjective).
 * 1)     (here  is treated as a noun adjective).
 * 1)     (here  is treated as a noun adjective).

It also means “as … as possible”.

Superlative
The superlative, unlike comparative, is more diverse and confusing. Often the is used.

There are four main forms to express the superlative, all of them influenced by Persian:
 * / + ablative + comparative (the most common).
 * Comparative.
 * Comparison suffix missing.
 * Comparative.
 * Comparison suffix missing.
 * Comparative.
 * Comparison suffix missing.
 * Comparative.
 * Comparison suffix missing.
 * Comparison suffix missing.
 * Comparison suffix missing.

Numerals
They show a strong influence of Persian, so that Persian numerals will gradually replace the Turkic ones.

Cardinal numerals
The tens numbers from 60 onwards offer a wide variety of forms. The lower tens numbers go back to the following patterns:

From 60 onwards there are 5 forms of patterns: native Turkic, borrowed Persian, based on 30, based on 40 and based on 50.

If the numeral is provided with a possessive suffix, it either functions as an ordinal or means "the (number), all (number)", and is therefore a collective number word (the numeral can also be plural).

As can be seen, /  follows the inflected numeral.

Persian influence
Another characteristic of the Khalaj is that in certain cases (especially when specifying money and time) Persian numerals are often (but not always) used.
 * Time:


 * Money:
 * Other:
 * 1)      (Usually age is expressed with Turkic numerals, though).
 * Other:
 * 1)      (Usually age is expressed with Turkic numerals, though).
 * 1)      (Usually age is expressed with Turkic numerals, though).

Numerals often are found with the Persian general classifier /. Unlike Persian, /  are used even with numbers greater than one.

Ordinal numerals
There are a wealth of expressions in the Chaladz dialects to represent ordinals. There is a suffix ( / ) that is also known in the Oghuz dialects (compare ), and that is precisely why Khalaj may have borrowed it. There's also the word which preserved the old Proto-Turkic suffix  found also in.

The Khalaj dialects in general have 12 types for the ordinals, of which only 4, namely for the numbers 1, 2, 5, 12, may be particularly common (but this area has long since been exhausted).


 * Persian ordinal numerals.
 * Persian ordinal numerals suffixed by ,
 * , /, , ; also.
 * Persian suffix.
 * Persian suffix (commonly suffixed with ).
 * Iranian suffix.
 * Compound
 * Persian suffix (commonly suffixed with ).
 * Iranian suffix.
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound
 * Compound

Distributive and others
“” is expressed through repetition.

“” is expressed by the ablative of.

“” and “” are expressed by.

Voice

 * {|class="wikitable"

! Voice !! Ending !! Notes !Reflexive !Reciprocal !rowspan=3|Causative ! Passive
 * + Voices
 * / || /,  /  or  /  after a CVː stem whose aorist ends in -yUr
 * ||after polysyllabic stems ending in a vowel or (Oghuz influence) -r
 * / ||in other cases
 * /, / ,  / ,  / ,  / ,  / ||exceptional forms
 * /, / ,  / ,  / ,  / ,  / ||exceptional forms
 * /, / ,  / ,  / ,  / ,  / ||exceptional forms
 * / ||after stems ending in a consonant other than -l and after -nV; otherwise (after vowel and -l) same as reflexive. /,  /  or  /  after a CVː stem whose aorist ends in -yUr
 * }

Sometimes the passive voice occurs instead of the reflexive.

Reciprocal means:
 * “To do something to each other”.
 * “To do something together”.
 * To deal with an object in a reserved manner, so that it is perceived as separate from oneself and in opposition to one another.

Passive (“to be ed, to [intransitive]”)

 * After a consonant other than -l:


 * After a vowel:


 * After -l:


 * After -nV:


 * After -CVː:

Reflexive (“to oneself”)

 * After a consonant:
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * After a vowel:
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.
 * }.

Reciprocal

 * After a consonant:


 * After a vowel:

Causative

 * After a consonant:


 * After a vowel ending polysyllabic stem:
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).
 * 1)  (Oghuz influence).

Potential
The potential usually uses the vowel found in the aorist (it depends of the verb) plus the verb. That vowel then should be pronounced as unrounded.

The potential usually occurs as impotential.



Impotential also makes use of the ancient : /.

Negation
Negation is made by adding /  for the aorist and most conjugations, and  /  for the perfect. The personal copular suffixes beginning in -A are used for the last one.
 * Aorist:


 * Present:


 * Past:


 * Perfect:


 * Plusquamperfect:


 * Aorist past

While some positive conjugations use the imperative suffix (for example in the past tense and the imperative itself), the negative conjugation deletes it.

/
The suffix /  is often used to form words and may then be more of a deverbal noun.
 * , from.

Otherwise, this suffix only occurs in conjunction with " /  " and has so far only been found in Xarrâbî dialect; it almost seems like a verbal adverb.

In addition, /  appears as a curse or negative optative in 2nd and 3rd persons:  /  + possessive suffix + .

/
This suffix appears in 4 forms:
 *  /  as an adverbial gerund (similar to ).


 *  /  as a verbal adverb (similar to ).


 *  /  and  /   as another verbal adverbs (similar to   and , respectively).


 * Alone, with possessive suffixes. For indefinite or universal context, it doesn't take the possessive.

/
This suffix is very similar to the former, but one difference between them is that /  can be used adverbially and  /  usually not. Instead, /  may occur next to "to begin" and in the sense of "to must do something". In general both suffixes are very similar to each other.
 * 1) '   ? (“When will seeing be like hearing'?”).
 * 1) '   ? (“When will seeing be like hearing'?”).
 * 1) '   ? (“When will seeing be like hearing'?”).
 * 1) '   ? (“When will seeing be like hearing'?”).
 * 1) '   ? (“When will seeing be like hearing'?”).

It occurs with ablative when it comes /.

/
This verbal noun suffix is very close to a deverbal noun, since it appears quite rare.
 * 1)  (a wedding celebration).
 * 1)  (a wedding celebration).

It occurs with ablative when it comes /.

/
This suffix actually functions both as a verbal noun and as a participle (like ). As Turkish, it often takes possessive suffixes.

With the locative suffix it means "'when ".

With the ablative suffix it means "'when/after ".

Verbal adverbs
Many of the verbal nouns mentioned form a transition to the verbal adverb. Now things are strange with the Khalaj verbal adverbs. Overall it can be stated:
 * The use of verbal adverbs (popular in Persian usage), is largely avoided (even if it were easily possible). Also there is often a simple ordering of verbal predicates instead of the use of verbal adverbs.
 * Many ancient Turkic verbal adverbs only live on in a fosilized form.
 * The use of the few remaining verbal adverbs is limited to certain cases.

I'll only focus on the remaining verbal adverbs. Examples of the other can be found in page 130 and 131 of Grammatik des Chaladsch.